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JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC 



Japan & the North Pacific 




JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC, 

AND 

A JAPANESE VIEW OF THE 
EASTERN QUESTION. 



MANJIRO INAGAKI, B.A. 

(Cantab) 



WITH MAPS 



NEW YORK 

SCRIBNER AND W EL FORD 

MDCCCXC 



. X 35 



D.TYL. 



TO 

JOHN ROBERT SEELEY M.A. Hon. LL.D. 

Regi its Professor of Modern History 

Fellow of Gonville and Cams College 

Cambridge 

THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY 

DEDICATED 

IX GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF HIS KINDNESS 

AND IN ADMIRATION OF HIS QUALITIES AS A 

HISTORIAN 

BY THE AUTHOR 



PREFACE 



I feel that some explanation is due when a 
Japanese ventures to address himself to 
English readers ; my plea is that the matters 
on which I write are of vital importance to 
England as well as to Japan. Though I feel 
that my knowledge of English is so imperfect 
that many errors of idiom and style and even 
of grammar must appear in my pages, yet I 
hope that the courtesy which I have ever 
experienced in this country will be extended 
also to my book. 

My aim has been twofold : on the one 
hand, to arouse my own countrymen to a 
sense of the great part Japan has to play in 
the coming century ; on the other, to call the 



io PREFACE. 

attention of Englishmen to the important 
position my country occupies with regard to 
British interests in the far East. 

The first part deals with Japan and the 
Pacific Question : but so closely is the latter 
bound up with the so-called Eastern Question 
that in the second part I have traced the 
history of the latter from its genesis to its 
present development. Commencing with a 
historical retrospect of Russian and English 
policy in Eastern Europe, I have marked 
the appearance of a rivalry between these 
two Powers which has extended from Eastern 
Europe to Central Asia, and is extending 
thence to Eastern Asia and the Pacific. This 
I have done because any movement in Eastern 
Europe or Central Asia will henceforth infal- 
libly spread northwards to the Baltic and 
eastwards to the Pacific. An acquaintance 
with the Eastern Question in all its phases 
will thus be necessary for the statesmen of 
Japan in the immediate future. I have con- 
fined my view to England and Russia 
because their interests in Asia and the North 
Pacific are so direct and so important that 



PREFACE. ii 

they must enter into close relations with my 
own country in the next century. 

I cannot claim an extensive knowledge of 
the problems I have sought to investigate, 
but it is my intention to continue that 
investigation in the several countries under 
consideration. By personal inquiries and 
observations in Eastern Europe, the United 
States, Canada, Australia, China, and the 
Malay Archipelago, I hope to correct some 
and confirm others of my conclusions. 

I have to thank many members of the 
University of Cambridge for their help 
during the writing and publication of my 
book. To Professor Seeley especially, whose 
hints and suggestions with regard to the 
history of the eighteenth century in particular 
have been so valuable to me, I desire to 
tender my most hearty and grateful thanks. 
To Dr. Donald Macalister (Fellow and 
Lecturer of St. John's College) and Mr. 
Oscar Browning, M.A. (Fellow and Lecturer 
of King's College) I owe much for kindly 
encouragement and advice and assistance in 
many ways, while I am indebted to Mr. G. 



12 PREFACE. 

E. Green, M.A. (St. John's College), for his 
labour in revising proofs and the ready help 
he has given me through the many years in 
which he has acted as my private tutor. 

The chief works which I have used are 
Professor Seeley's " Expansion of England," 
Hon. Evelyn Ashley's " Life of Lord 
Palmerston," and Professor Holland's 
" European Concert in the Eastern Ques- 
tion." The latter I have consulted specially 
for the history of treaties. 

M. INAGAKI. 
Caius College, Cambridge, 
April, 1890. 



PAGE 



CONTENTS. 

PART I. 
JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC . 21 

England and Asia — The Persian war — The Chinese war — 
Russian diplomacy in China — Singapore and Hong Kong 
— Labuan and Port Hamilton — Position of Japan ; its 
resources — Importance of Chinese alliance to England — 
Strength of English position in the Pacific at present — 
Possible danger from Russia through Mongolia and 
Manchooria — Japan the key of the Pacific ; her area 
and people ; her rapid development ; her favourable posi- 
tion ; effect of Panama Canal on her commerce — England's 
route to the East by the Canadian Pacific Railway — 
Japanese manufactures — Rivalry of Germany and England 
in the South Pacific — Imperial Federation for England and 
her colonies — Importance of island of Formosa — Compara- 
tive progress of Russia and England — The coming struggle. 

PART II. 

THE EASTERN QUESTION 

1. 

Foreign Policy of England during the Six- 
teenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth 
Centuries 73 

The Spanish Empire, its power, and its decline — Com- 
mercial rivalry of England and Holland — The ascendency 



H CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

of France; threatened by the Grand Alliance— The 
Spanish succession and the Bourbon league— England's 
connection with the war of the Austrian succession — The 
Seven Years' War— Revival of the Anglo-Bourbon struggle 
in the American and Napoleonic wars. 



Foreign Policy of Russia during the Reigns 

of Peter, Catherine, and Alexander . 95 

Peter the Great, and establishment of Russian power on 
the Baltic — Consequent collision with the Northern States 
and the Maritime Powers— Catherine II. and Poland- 
First partition — Russia reaches the Black Sea — Russo- 
Austrian alliance against Turkey opposed by Pitt — Second 
and third partitions of Poland — Rise of Prussia — Alexander 
I. and the conquest of Turkey — Treaty of Tilsit — Peace of 
Bucharest — Congress of Vienna — French influence in the 
East destroyed. 



III. 

The New European System . . . .116 

The concert of the Great Powers ; its aims — It does not 
protect small states from its own members, e.g., Polish 
Revolution — How far can it solve the Turkish question ? 

IV. 

Greek Independence. . . . . .122 

The Holy Alliance — The Greek insurrection — Interference 
of the Three Powers — Battle of Navarino — Treaty of 
Adrianople — The policy of Nicholas I. ; Treaty of Unkiar 
Ikelessi — Turkey only saved by English and French aid — 
Palmerston succeeds to Canning's policy. 



CONTENTS. 15 



PAGE 

The Crimean War 133 

Nicholas I. alienates France from England by the 
Egyptian question — Mehemet Ali and Palmerston's con- 
vention against him — Nicholas I. in England — The Pro- 
tectorate of the Holy Land ; breach between Russia and 
France — Proposed partition of Turkey — War of Russia 
and Turkey — The Vienna Note — Intervention of France 
and England to save Turkey — Treaty of Paris ; Russia 
foiled — Correspondence between Palmerston and Aberdeen 
as to the declaration of war — National feeling of England 
secures the former's triumph — French motives in joining in 
the war. 

VI. 

The Black Sea Conference . . . .166 

French influence destroyed by the Franco-Prussian War — 
Russia annuls the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris 
— Condition of Europe prevents their enforcement by the 
Powers — London Conference ; Russia secures the Black 
Sea ; England's mistake — Alsace and Lorraine destroy the 
balance of power. 

VII. 

The Russo-Turkish War of 1878 . . .174 

Bulgarian atrocities — The Andrassy Note ; England de- 
stroys its effect — The Berlin Memorandum ; England 
opposes it — Russia prepares for a Turkish war — Conference 
of Constantinople — New Turkish Constitution — Russo- 
Turkish War — Treaty of San Stefano — Intervention of the 
Powers —The Berlin Congress — Final treaty of peace. 

VIII. 

Remarks on Treaty of Berlin . . .197 

The position of affairs — The Salisbury-Schouvaloff Memo- 
randum and its disastrous effect on the negotiations at 



16 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Berlin — Russia's gain — England and Austria the guardians 
of Turkey — Austria's vigorous and straightforward Balkan 
policy — Thwarted in Servia but triumphant in Bulgaria — 
Relations of Greece to Austria — Solution of the Crete 
question — Neutrality of Belgium threatened — Importance 
of Constantinople to Russia ; the Anglo-Turkish Conven- 
tion — England's feeble policy in Asia Minor — The ques- 
tion of Egypt — A new route to India by railway from the 
Mediterranean to Persian Gulf — England's relation to Con- 
stantinople. 



IX. 

Central Asia 229 

Rise of British power in India— Rivalry of France — Aims 
of Napoleon — Russian influence in Central Asia — Its great 
extension after the Crimean War — And after the Berlin 
Congress — Possible points of attack on India — Constanti- 
nople the real aim of Russia's Asiatic policy — Recent 
Russian annexations and railways in Central Asia — Re- 
action of Asiatic movements on the Balkan question — 
Dangerous condition of Austria — Possible future Russian 
advances in Asia — England's true policy the construction 
of a speedy route to India by railway from the Mediter- 
ranean to the Persian Gulf— Alliance of England, France, 
Turkey, Austria, and Italy would effectively thwart 
Russian schemes. 



LIST OF MAPS. 

1. JAPAN AND THE NORTH PACIFIC . . FrontlSpteCB 

2. THE PACIFIC AND ITS SEA-ROUTES . . 46 

3. THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN EUROPE . . 97 

4. EASTERN EUROPE AND WESTERN ASIA , . I T 5 

5. THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN ASIA . . . 2$$ 



PART I. 
JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 



PART I. 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

England and Asia — The Persian war — The Chinese war 
— Russian diplomacy in China — Singapore and Hong 
Kong — Labuan and Port Hamilton — Position of 
Japan ; its resources — Importance of Chinese alliance 
to England — Strength of English position in the 
Pacific at pi'esent — Possible danger from Russia through 
Mongolia and Manchooria—Japati the key of the Pa- 
cific j her area and people ; her rapid development ; 
her favourable position; effect of Panama Canal 011 
her co miner ce — England's route to the East by the 
Canadian Pacific Railway— Japanese manufactures — 
Rivalry of Gerjnany and England in the South Pacific 
— Imperial Federation for England and her colonies — 
Importance of island of Formosa— Comparative pro- 
gress of Russia and England — The coming struggle. 

Without doubt the Pacific will in the coming 
century be the platform of commercial and 
political enterprise. This truth, however, 
escapes the eyes of ninety-nine out of a 
hundred, just as did the importance of Eastern 



22 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Europe in 1790, and of Central Asia in 
1857. In the former case England did not 
appreciate the danger of a Russian. aggression 
of Turkey, and so Pitt's intervention in the 
Turkish Question failed. It was otherwise 
in the second half of the nineteenth century, 
when the Crimean War and the Berlin 
Congress proved great events in English 
history. In 1857 the national feeling in 
England was not aroused as to the import- 
ance of defending Persia from foreign attack. 
Lord Palmerston had written to Lord 
Clarendon, Feb. 17, 1857, " It is quite true, 
as you say, that people in general are 
disposed to think lightly of our Persian War, 
that is to say, not enough to see the import- 
ance of the question at issue." How strongly 
does the Afghan question attract the public 
attention of England at the present day ? 

It is very evident that in 1857 very few in 
England were awake to the vital importance 
of withstanding Russian inroads into the far 
East, viz., the Pacific. 

After defeating Russia miserably in the 
Crimean War and driving her back at the 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 23 

Balkans by the Treaty of Paris, Lord 
Palmerston's mind was now revolving and 
discussing the following serious thought : 
" Where would Russia stretch out her hands 
next ? " 

I think I am not wrong - in stating the 
following as Lord Palmerston's solution of 
the problem : — 

(a) That Russia was about to strike the 
English interests at Afghanistan by an alli- 
ance with Persia, 

(6) That she would attack the Afghan 
frontier single-handed. 

(c) That an alliance would be formed with 
the Chinese, and a combined hostility against 
Britain would be shown by both. 

(d) She would extend her Siberian terri- 
tory to the Pacific on the north, thereby 
obtaining a seaport on that ocean's coast, and 
make it an outpost for undermining English 
influence in Southern China. 

Therefore in 1856 Lord Palmerston de- 
clared war against Persia remarking that 
M we are beginning to reveal the first 



24 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

openings of trenches against India by 
Russia." 1 

This policy proved a winning one. The 
Indian Mutiny of 1857, however, scarcely 
gave Palmerston time to mature his Afghan 
Frontier scheme, consequently his views with 
regard to that country were to a great extent 
frustrated by Russia. 

In the autumn of 1856, the Arrow dispute 
gave Palmerston his long- wished for oppor- 
tunity of gaining a stronghold in the South 
China Sea. He declared war on China. The 
causes of this dispute on the English side 
were morally unjust and legally untenable. 
Cobden brought forward a resolution to this 
effect — that "The paper laid on the table 
failed to establish satisfactory grounds for 
the violent measure resorted to." Disraeli, 
Russell, and Graham all supported Cobden's 
motion. Mr. Gladstone, who was also in 
favour of the motion, said, at the conclusion 
of his speech, " with every one of us it rests 
to show that this House, which is the first, 

1 Lord Palmerston's letter to Lord Clarendon, Feb. 
i7> i§57- 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 25 

the most ancient, and the noblest temple of 
freedom in the world, is also the temple of 
that everlasting justice without which freedom 
itself would only be a name, or only a curse, 
to mankind. And I cherish the trust that 
when you, sir, rise in your place to-night to 
declare the numbers of the division from the 
chair which you adorn, the words which you 
speak will go forth from the halls of the 
House of Commons as a message of British 
justice and wisdom to the farthest corner of 
the world." 

Mr. Gladstone, it certainly seems to me, 
only viewed the matter from a moral point of 
view. If we look at it in this light, then the 
British occupation of Port Hamilton was a 
still more striking example of English "loose 
law and loose notion of morality in regard to 
Eastern nations/' 

Palmerston was defeated in the House by 
sixteen votes, but was returned at the general 
election by a large majority backed by the 
aggressive feelings of the English nation. 

He contended that " if the Chinese were 
right about the Arrow, they were wrong 



26 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

about something else ; if legality did not 
exactly justify violence, it was at any rate 
required by policy!' l He described this 
policy in the following way— " To maintain 
the rights, to defend the lives and properties 
of British subjects, to improve our relations 
with China, and in the selection and arrange- 
ment of those objects to perform the duty 
which we owed to the country," 

This is easy to understand, and showed at 
any rate a disposition, in fact a wish, for the 
Anglo-Chinese alliance. 

The Treaty of Pekin was finally concluded 
in i860, the terms of which were — Toleration 
of Christianity, a revised tariff, payment of 
an indemnity, and resident ambassadors at 
Pekin. 

Whatever might have been the policy of 
Palmerston in the Chinese War, Russia took 
it as indirectly pointed at herself. 

General Ignatieff 3 was sent to China 

1 John Morley's "The Life of Richard Cobden," vol, 
ii. p. 189. 

2 "In the year 1855 or 1856 his father's influence 
succeeded in procuring him a position in the suite of 
General Muravieff, who as Governor-general of Eastern 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 27 

immediately as Russian Plenipotentiary. It 
is said that he furnished maps to the allies, 
in fact did his very best to bring the negotia- 
tions to a successful and peaceful close, and 
immediately after the signing of the agree- 
ment, he commenced overtures for his own 
country, and succeeded in obtaining from 
China the cession of Eastern Siberia with 
Vladivostock and other seaports on the 
Pacific (1858). 

Lord Elgin asked Ignatieff why Russia 
was so anxious to obtain naval ports on 
the Pacific. He replied ; " We do not 
want them for our own sake, but chiefly 
in order that we may be in a position to 
compel the English to recognize that it is 

Siberia, had undertaken a more accurate investigation of 
the Amoor territory, and was preparing for its coloniza- 
tion. During this work, the French and English war 
with China broke out ; the allies occupied Pekin, and 
seemed to threaten the existence of the Celestial Empire. 
This moment was taken advantage of by Russia, who had 
already been negotiating for some time with China, 
respecting the' cession of a large territory south of the 
Amoor. Ignatieff was sent to China as ambassador 
extraordinary " (F. E. Bunnett's " Russian Society," 
p. 170), 



28 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

worth their while to be friends with us rather 
than foes/' 

Here began the struggle between England 
and Russia in the Pacific. 

In 1859 Russia obtained the Saghalien I 
Island, in the North Pacific, from Japan, in 
exchange for the Kurile Island, while Eng- 
land was bombarding 2 Kagoshima, a port 
in South Japan (1862), but the English were 
virtually repelled from there. 

Previous to this period the English policy 
in Asia was to establish a firm hold of Indian 
commerce with the South China Sea, for she 
could not find so large and profitable a field 

1 " The preciousness of Saghalien in the eye of the 
Russians, however, does not lie so much in its coal 
beds, its promise of future harvests, its use as a penal 
colony, or its six hundred miles of length, but in its 
situation commanding the northern entrance to the sea 
of Japan, and guarding, like a huge breakwater, the 
mouth of the great river Amoor " (John Geddie, 
F.R.G.S., "The Russian Empire," p. 484). 

2 " If war is made to enforce a commercial treaty, we 
run the risk of engaging in protracted hostilities, and of 
earning a reputation for quarrelling with every nation in 
the East. . . . The Japanese may well be jealous of 
Europeans, who insult their usages and carry away their 
gold" (Lord J. Russell to Mr. Alcock, Feb. 28, i860). 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 29 

of commerce elsewhere. Therefore the Eng- 
lish attention for the time being was entirely 
directed in that quarter. 

In 1 8 19 the island of Singapore, as well 
as all the seas, straits, and islands lying 
within ten miles of its coast, were ceded to 
the British by the Sultan of Johor. It then 
contained only a few hundred piratical fisher- 
men, but now it is on the great road of 
commerce between the eastern and western 
portions of Maritime Asia, and is a most 
important military and naval station. 

Hong-Kong, an island off the southern 
coast of China, was occupied by the English, 
and in 1842 was formally handed over by 
the Treaty of Nankin. It has now become 
a great centre of trade, besides being a naval 
and military station. 

In 1846 Labuan, the northern part of 
Borneo, was ceded to Great Britain by the 
Sultan of Borneo, and owing to the influence 
of Sir James Brooke a settlement was at 
once formed. Now it also, like Singapore, 
forms an important commercial station, and 
transmits to both China and Europe the 



30 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

produce of Borneo and the Malay Archi- 
pelago. 

Owing to the opening of seaports in 
Northern China for foreign trade in 1842, the 
growing Russian influence in the Northern 
Pacific and many other circumstances caused 
England to perceive the necessity of having 
a naval depot and commercial harbour on 
the Tonof Hai and on the Yellow Sea. 
England was doubtless casting her eyes 
upon the Chusan Island or some other 
island in the Chusan Archipelago, but did 
not dare to occupy any one of them lest 
she should thereby offend the chief trading 
nation of that quarter, viz., China. 

However, in 1885 England annexed Port 
Hamilton, on the southern coast of the Corea, 
during the threatened breach with Russia on 
the Murghab question. 

" Port Hamilton," said the author of " The 
Present Condition of European Politics," l 
u was wisely occupied as a base from which, 
with or without a Chinese alliance, Russia 

1 "The Present Condition of European Politics," 
p. 175. 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 31 

could be attacked on the Pacific. It is vital 
to us that we should have a coaling station 
and a base of operations within reach of 
Vladivostock and the Amoor at the begin- 
ning of a war, as a guard-house for the 
protection of our China trade and for the 
prevention of a sudden descent upon our 
colonies ; ultimately as the head station for 
our Canadian Pacific railroad trade ; and at 
all times, and especially in the later stages 
of the war, as an offensive station for our 
main attack on Russia." 

Port Hamilton forms the gate of Tong 
Hai and the Yellow Sea ; it cannot, how- 
ever, become a base of operations for an 
attack on the Russian force at Vladivostock 
and the Amoor unless an English alliance 
is formed with Japan. The above writer 
shows an ignorance of the importance of 
the situation of Japan in the Pacific ques- 
tion. Japan holds the key of the North 
China Sea and Japan Sea in Tsushima. 1 

1 Earl Russell, Nov. 22, 1861, echoed these condi- 
tions (four conditions) and equivalent, and added a some- 
what cunning addition : " The opening of the ports of 
Tsushima (in place of Osaka, the centre and trading 



32 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

She has fortified that island, and placed it 
in direct communication with the naval 
station of Sasebo, also with the military- 
forces of Kumamoto. She also can send 
troops and fleets from the Kure naval station 
and the garrison of Hiroshima. She would 
also, if required, have other naval stations 
on the coast of the Japan Sea ready for any 
emergency. In this manner she would be 
able to keep out the British fleet from attack- 
ing Vladivostock and the Amoor through the 
Japan Sea. Even if she might not be able 
to do this single-handed she certainly could 
by an alliance with Russia. 

If also Japan occupied Fusan, on the 
south-eastern shore of the Corea, the Japan 
Sea would be rendered almost impregnable 
from any southern attack. 

city of the Empire) and the neighbouring coast of Corea 
as far as Japanese authority extends, to the trade of 
the treaty powers." It could only be the expectation 
of some secret advantages that do not at first sight meet 
the eye that could have induced any one to propose the 
port of Tsushima for that of Osaka (" Diplomacy in 
Japan," p. 61). The Japanese wisely declined the 
British offer. 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 33 

Again, Port Hamilton would be useless 
as a head station for the Canadian Pacific 
Railway trade without an Anglo-Japanese alli- 
ance. If you look at the map, you can easily 
appreciate the situation. Japan, with many 
hundreds of small islands, lies between 24 
and 5 2 in N. lat., its eastern shores facing 
the Pacific and cutting off a direct line from 
Vancouver's Island to Port Hamilton. It 
must therefore depend mainly upon Japan 
as a financial and political success. 

Japan is now divided into six military 
districts, while the seas around«it are divided 
into five parts, each having its own chief 
station in contemplation. The Government 
are now contemplating establishing a strong 
naval station at Mororan in Hokkukaido, for 
the defence of the district and also the shore 
of the northern part of the mainland, 
especially of the Tsugaru Strait. The strait 
of Shimonoseki also has been fortified and 
garrisoned on both sides, and has close 
communication from the Kure naval station, 
and with Hiroshima, and Osaka. Railway 
communication has also made great strides 



34 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

during the last few years, and rapid transit 
has consequently greatly improved through- 
out the empire. 

If the Kiushiu, the Loo Choo, and the 
Miyako Islands are well looked after by the 
Japanese fleet from the Sasebo naval station, 
then Japan would be able to sever the 
communication between Vancouver's Islands 
and Port Hamilton, and also between the 
former place and Hong Kong to a certain 
extent. The San- Francisco- Hong- Kong 
route would be injured, and Shanghai- Port- 
Hamilton line would be threatened. With- 
out doubt Japan is the Key of the Pacific. 

Reviewing the discussion, we find that 
Port Hamilton is rather useless with regard 
to the Japan Sea and the Canadian Pacific 
railway road without a Japanese alliance, but 
it would be of immense importance in with- 
standing a Russian attack on the British 
interests from the Yellow Sea through 
Mongolia or Manchooria. It is also an 
excellent position for any offensive attack 
upon China in case of war breaking out. 

The British occupation of Port Hamilton 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 35 

was very galling to the Chinese nation, in 
fact, quite as disagreeable as the occupation of 
Malta and Corsica was to Italy, and the 
annexing of the Channel Islands and Heligo- 
land to France and Germany. It has there- 
fore somewhat shaken the Anglo-Chinese 
alliance. 

A Chinese alliance, however, is of far 
greater importance for English interests than 
the occupation of Port Hamilton. If relations 
became strained a severe blow would be dealt 
to English trade and commerce in that part. 
The main portion of the commercial trade of 
China is with the United Kingdom and her 
colonies ; for instance, in 1887, the imports of 
China from Great Britain, Hong Kong, and 
India amounted to about 89,000,000 tael, 
while the exports to the same countries were 
48,000,000 tael. It is hardly possible to find 
two countries more closely connected by trade 
than England and China. 1 The Hamilton 

1 In 1887. Imports in Exports 

value from in value to 

Great Britain ... 25,666,477 tael ... 16,482,809 tael. 
Hong Kong ... 57>7 6l >°39 „ ••• 3 J ,393> l8 9 » 



36 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

scheme was wisely abandoned in 1887, and 
the English Government obtained a written 
guarantee from China against a Russian 
occupation in future years. 

Viscount Cranbrook said in his reply to 
a question asked by Viscount Sidmouth : 
" That the papers to which he referred did 
contain a written statement, and a very long 
written statement on the part of the Chinese 
Government giving the guarantee in question. 
It was not a mere verbal statement by the 
Chinese Covernment, but a very deliberate 
note. It was found that the Chinese had 
received from the . Russian Government a 
guarantee that Russia would not interfere 
with Corean territory in future if the British 
did not, and the Chinese Government were 
naturally in a position, on the faith of that 
guarantee by the Russian Government, to 

In 1887. Imports in Enports 

value from in value to 

India 5.537,375 tael ... 797,579 tael. 

Continent of Europe) n «„ _ Q TT „. A , 

(without Russia) , 2 '5 8 7,54S „ ... ii i5 45,4o6 „ 

The average value of the Haikwan tael during 1887 
was 4s. iojd. (" The Statesman's Year-book," 1889.) 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 37 

give a guarantee to the British Government. 
The Marquess of Salisbury, on the part of 
her Majesty's Government, had accepted it 
as a guarantee in writing from the Chinese 
Government." 

This policy was undoubtedly an exceed- 
ingly wise and good one. By this England 
not only regained a firm and complete 
commercial alliance, but also maintained and 
strengthened a political alliance against 
Russian attacks from the Corea and indirectly 
from Manchooria and Mongolia. 

England also saved money by the abandon- 
ment of the Port Hamilton scheme, and 
saved her fleet from being, to a certain 
degree, scattered in such a far-off quarter of 
the globe. 

England now holds complete sway both 
commercially and navally in the Pacific. 
Lord Salisbury's policy is worthy of all 
praise, together with Mr. Gladstone's original 
scheme. If the scheme had never been 
originated there would not have been so 
firm an Anglo-Chinese alliance as there 
now is. 



3 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

England's power at the present time is 
three times as great as that of Russia in the 
Pacific ; in fact Russia has always been over- 
weighted in that respect. Therefore it is self- 
evident she could never be able to withstand 
the combined Anglo-Chinese fleets. 

It seems to me that the only feasible plan 
for a Russian attack on Anglo-Chinese 
alliance would be from Mongolia and 
Manchooria by means of an alliance with 
the Mongolian Tartars. This would be 
preferable to coping with England face to 
face in the Pacific. 

Chinese history plainly tells us that the 
Chinese could not withstand an attack of 
the brave Mongol Tartars from the north, 
and that they have proved a constant source 
of dread to them. 

The Great Wall which stretches across the 
whole northern limit of the Chinese Empire 
from the sea to the farthest western corner 
of the Province of Kansal, was built only 
for the defence of China against the northern 
" daring " Tartars. 

Ghenghis Khan (1194), the rival of Attila, 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 39 

in the extent of his kingdom, who overran 
the greater part of China and subdued nearly 
the whole of N. Asia, who carried his arms 
into Persia and Delhi, drove the Indians on 
to the Ganges, and also destroyed Astrakhan 
and the power of the Ottoman, was a Mon- 
golian Tartar. 

In the thirteenth century Kokpitsuretsu 
invaded China from Mongolia and formed 
the Gen dynasty which ruled over the whole 
eastern part of Asia except Japan (1280 to 
1368). The founder of the present Chinese 
dynasty was a Manchoorian. Both, how- 
ever, were of Mongolian extraction, and well 
kept up the fame of the Tartars for boldness 
and general daring. Since their times the 
Tartars have fully maintained their title of 
being the most warlike tribe in Asia. 

Therefore if Russia were allied with the 
Mongol Tartars she would be able at least 
to reach the Yellow Sea, even if she were 
not able to do China serious harm. 

Her best policy would be to extend the 
Omsk-Tomsk Railway 1 to Kiakhta via Kansk 

1 The Czar approved of the plan for completing the 



4 o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

and Irkutsk, and from there to Ust Strelka 
and Blagovestchensk through Nertchinsk ; a 
branch also might be thrown off from Kiakhta 
to Oorga, in the direction of Pekin, the 
metropolis of China ; two branches might 
also be constructed from Nertchinsk — (a) to 
Isitsikar, through the western boundary of 
Manchooria, with the ultimate object of 
reaching- some convenient harbour on the 
Gulf of Leaotong, or the Yellow Sea, via 
Kirin 1 and Moukden — (^)to L. Kulon through 
the northern boundary of Mongolia in the 
direction of Pekin ; and to construct a branch 
line from Blagovestchensk to Isitsikar via 
Merghen. 

By these means Russia would not only 
open sources of untold wealth in Siberia, but 
also secure a larger field of commerce in 
Manchooria and Mongolia than she has done 
by the opening of the Trans-Caspian Railway. 

Siberian Railway, and for its connection with the Trans- 
Caucasian line, Jan., 1890 ; the works are to be com- 
menced by the 1st of May at the latest. 

1 The Chinese Government gave its assent to the con- 
struction of a railway from Pekin to Kirin via Moukden 
Jan., 1890. 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 41 

It is clear that there would be more political 
and strategical advantages in this quarter 
than in Central Asia. Should Russia ever 
be able to get possession of a seaport in the 
Gulf of Leaotong or in the Yellow Sea, she 
would deal a heavy blow against the Anglo- 
Chinese alliance, and ultimately frustrate, to 
a great extent, British aspirations in the East. 

Russia, however, has worked in quite a dif- 
ferent way, and is strengthening the defences 
at Vladivostock both in military and naval 
forces, and is acting towards the Corea in a 
gradually-increasing aggressive spirit, which 
had succeeded in Europe and Central Asia 
previously for more than one hundred and 
fifty years. 

Lord Derby well described the Russian 
tactics in the following speech : — " It has 
never been preceded by storm, but by sap 
and mine. The first process has been in- 
variably that of fomenting discontent and 
dissatisfaction amongst the subjects of sub- 
ordinate states, then proffering mediation, 
then offering assistance to the weaker party, 
then declaring the independence of that 



42 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

party, then placing that independence under 
the protection of Russia, and finally, from 
protection proceeding to the incorporation, 
one by one, of those states into the gigantic 
body of the Russian Empire." 

But Russia should remember that a Russian 
annexation of Corea — " the Turkey " in Asia 
— would necessitate an alliance of England, 
China, and Japan, who all possess common 
interests in the Pacific and Yellow Sea ; also 
that it might cause a second Crimean war in 
the Pacific instead of on the Black Sea. 

Japan was comparatively unknown until 
Commodore Perry, of the United States, 
introduced her to European society in 1854. 
Since that date a " wonderful metamorphosis'" 
has taken place in every branch of civiliza- 
tion. 

The total area of Japan is 'about 148,742 
square miles, or nearly a quarter greater than 
that of the United Kingdom, while the popu- 
lation is about 38,000,000. The climate is 
very healthy, while the natural resources are 
many. 

Japanese patriotism is very keen, and their 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 43 

love of country stands before everything ; 
they are brave, honest, and open-minded. 
The following facts bear out the above state- 
ment : In 1 28 1 the "Armada of Mongol 
Tartars " reached the Japanese shores, only to 
be easily repulsed in Kiushiu by the Japanese 
fleet. Hideyoshi in the sixteenth century con- 
quered the Corea, and General Saigo defeated 
and subjugated eighteen of the resident 
chiefs with all their followers in Formosa 

(1873). 

One of the great traits in the Japanese 
character is that they never hesitate to adopt 
new systems and laws if they consider them 
beneficial for their country. Feudalism was 
abolished in 187 1 without bloodshed. In 
1879 city and prefectural assemblies were 
created, based on the principle of the election. 
The new Constitution was promulgated in 
1889, and new Houses of Peers and Commons 
will be opened this year (1890). 

Railways are rapidly growing, over 1,000 
miles already having been laid, and soon the 
whole country will be opened out by the 
" iron horse." All the principal towns are 



44 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

connected by telegraph l with one another 
and with Europe. The postal system 2 is 
carried out on English lines, while the police 
force is strong and very efficient. The 
standing army consists of about forty-three 
thousand men, which, however, could be 
quickly increased to two hundred thousand 
in case of war, all trained and equipped under 
the European system. The navy consists 
of thirty-two ships, including several protected 
cruisers, and in this or next year it will be 
reinforced by three more ironclads and five. 
or six gunboats. The Japanese navy is 
organized chiefly upon the pattern of the 
English navy. 

The geographical situation and condition 
of Japan are very favourable to her future 
prosperity, both commercially and from a 
manufacturing point of view. Look at a 

1 There are now more than sixteen million miles of 
wire, and in 1887 the number of telegrams carried were 
about five millions ("The Statesman's Year-book," 1889). 

2 The post office carried, in 1887, 54,313,385 letters, 
55j33 2 )S73 P ost cards, 20,713,422 newspapers and books, 
1 63,630 packets, 7,014,859 letters and newspapers free 
of postage ("The Statesman's Year-book," 1889). 



r: ji I 



K.. 



-1 _ ^ 






\ f 1 *tt 



#■*. sfH r iff - 




JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 47 

map of the world — the country lies between 
two of the largest commercial nations, viz., 
the United States and China, the former I 
being England's great commercial rival of 
the present day, while the latter offers a 
large field for trade and commerce. 

If M. de Lesseps' scheme of the Panama 
Canal should happen to be completed on his 
Suez Canal line, undoubtedly the Pacific 
Ocean would be revolutionized in every way. 
Up to now the water-way from Europe to 
the Pacific has been from the West, viz., via 
the Suez Canal, or the Cape of Good Hope. 

But in case of the " gate of the 
Pacific " being open, then European goods 
could be transported in another direction, 
and the nations in the Pacific would have 
two sea routes. Japan would be placed 
practically in the centre of three large 
markets — Europe, Asia, and America — and 
its commercial prosperity would be ensured. 

1 " The English world-empire has two gigantic neigh- 
bours in the west and in the east. In the West she has 
the United States, and in the East Russia for a neighbour" 
(Prof. Seeley's " Expansion of England," p. 288). 



4 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

If, however, the Panama scheme failed from 
one cause or another there would be another 



sea route. 



1 Extracts from a pamphlet written in 1847 by His 
Imperial Majesty, Napoleon III. : — 

"There are certain countries which, from their 
geographical 1 situation, are destined to a highly pros- 
perous future. Wealth, power, every national advantage, 
flows into them, provided that where Nature has done her 
utmost, man does not neglect to avail himself of her 
beneficent assistance. 

" Those countries are in the most favourable conditions 
which are situated on the high road of commerce, and 
which offer to commerce the safest ports and harbours, as 
well as the most profitable interchange of commodities. 
Such countries, finding in the intercourse of foreign trade 
illimitable resources, are enabled to take advantage of the 
fertility of their soil ; and in this way a home trade 
springs up commensurate with the increase of mercantile 
traffic. It is by such means that Tyre and Carthage, 
Constantinople, Venice, Genoa, Amsterdam, Liverpool, 
and London attained to such great prosperity, rising from 
the condition of poor hamlets to extensive and affluent 
commercial cities, and exhibiting to surrounding nations 
the astonishing spectacle of powerful states springing 
suddenly from unwholesome swamps and marshes. 
Venice in particular was indebted for her overwhelming- 
grandeur to the geographical position which constituted 
her for centuries the entrepot between Europe and the 
East ; and it was only when the discovery of the Cape of 
Good Hope opened a ship passage to the latter that her 
prosperity gradually declined. Notwithstanding, so great 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 49 

In 1887 the American Senate sanctioned 
the creation of a company for the construc- 
tion of a maritime canal across Nicaragua, 1 

was her accumulation of wealth, and consequent com- 
mercial influence, that she withstood for three centuries 
the formidable competition thus created. 

"There exists another city famous in history, although 
now fallen from its pristine grandeur, so admirably 
situated as to excite the jealousy of all the great 
European Powers, who combine to maintain in it a 
government so far barbarous as to be incapable of 
taking advantage of the great resources bestowed upon 
it by nature. The geographical position of Constantinople 
is such as rendered her the queen of the ancient world. 
Occupying, as she does, the central point between Europe, 
Asia, and Africa, she could become the entrepot of the 
commerce of all these countries, and obtain over them 
an immense preponderance ; for in politics, as in strategy, 
a central position always commands the circumference. 
Situated between two seas, of which, like two great lakes, 
she commands the entrance, she could shut up in them, 
sheltered from the assaults of all other nations, the most 
formidable fleets, by which she could exercise dominion 



1 " The total length of the canal from sea to sea would 
be little short of 200 miles, viz., 15^ miles from the Pacific 
to the lake, 56^ across the lake, and 119 to the Atlantic ; 
total, 191 miles ; and the Lake of Nicaragua is navigable 
for ships of the largest class down to the mouth of the 
river San Juan " (C. B. Pin's " The Gate of the Pacific,"' 

4 



So JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

and the actual work was begun in October, 
1B89. 

The President of the country, which has a 

in the Mediterranean as well as in the Black Sea, thereby 
commanding the entrance of the Danube, which opens 
the way to Germany, as well as the sources of the 
Euphrates, which open the road to the Indies, dictating 
her own terms to the commerce of Greece, France, Italy, 
Spain, and Egypt. This is what the proud city of 
Constantine could be, and this is what she is not, 
'because' as Montesquieu says, 'God permitted that 
Turks should exist on earth, a people the most fit to 
possess uselessly a great empire.' 

"There exists in the New World a state as admirably 
situated as Constantinople, and we must say, up to the 
present time, as uselessly occupied ; we allude to the 
state of Nicaragua. As Constantinople is the centre of the 
ancient world, so is the town of Leon, or rather Massaya, 
the centre of the new ; and if the tongue of land which 
separates its two lakes from the Pacific Ocean were cut 
through, she would command by her central position the 
entire coast of North and South America. Like Con- 
stantinople, Massaya is situated between two extensive 
natural harbours, capable of giving shelter to the largest 
fleets, safe from attack. The state of Nicaragua can 
become, better than Constantinople, the necessary route 
for the great commerce of the world, for it is for the 
United States the shortest road to China and the East 
Indies, and for England and the rest of Europe to New 
Holland, Polynesia, and the whole of the western coast 
of America. The state of Nicaragua is, then, destined to 
attain to an extraordinary degree of prosperity and 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 51 

surplus of 57,000,000 dollars, alluding to the 

commencement of the Nicaragua Canal said 

in his message to the Senate : — 

"This Government is ready to promote 

grandeur ; for that which renders its political position 
more advantageous than that of Constantinople is, that 
the great maritime powers of Europe would witness with 
pleasure, and not with jealousy, its attainment of a station 
no less favourable to its individual interests than to the 
commerce of the world. 

" France, England, Holland, Russia, and the United 
States, have a great commercial interest in the establish- 
ment of a communication between the two oceans j but 
England has more than the other powers a political 
interest in the execution of this project. England 
will see with pleasure Central America become a 
flourishing and powerful state, which will establish a 
balance of power by creating in Spanish America a new 
centre of active enterprise, powerful enough to give rise 
to a great feeling of nationality and to prevent, by backing 
Mexico, any further encroachment from the north. 
England will witness with satisfaction the opening of a 
route which will enable her to communicate more 
speedily with Oregon, China, and her possessions in New 
Holland. She will rmd, in a word, that the advancement 
of Central America will renovate the declining commerce 
of Jamaica and the other English island in the Antilles, 
the progressive decay of which will be thereby stopped. 
It is a happy coincidence that the political and commercial 
prosperity of the state of Nicaragua is closely connected 
with the policy of that nation which has the greatest pre- 
ponderance on the sea." 



5 2 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

every proper requirement for the adjustment 
of all questions presenting obstacles to its 
completion." It is therefore pretty sure, 
sooner or later, to be completed, and would 
take the place of the Panama Canal and give 
the same advantages with regard to the 
Pacific and Japan. 

" In the school of Carl Ritter," * said 
Professor Seeley, " much has been said of 
three stages of civilization determined by 
geographical conditions — the potamic, which 
clings to rivers ; the thalassic, which grows 
up around inland seas ; and lastly, the 
oceanic." He also traced the movements 
of the centre of commerce and intelligence 
in Europe, and at last found out why 
England had attained her present great- 
ness. 

Without doubt, since the discovery of a 
new world the whole world has become 
the oceanic. 

But the discoveries of Watt and Stephen- 
son, seem to me to have added another stage 
to general civilization, viz., the railway ; and 

1 Prof. Seeley's ''Expansion of England," p. 87. 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 53 

it seems also to me that we mi^ht call the 
present era " the railway-oceanic." 

The Canadian Pacific Railway scheme was 
completed in 1887. It has a total length of 
at least 3,000 miles, starting from Quebec and 
finishing at Vancouver's Island on the Pacific. 
Its marvellous success will also considerably 
change the general tenor of the Pacific even 
more than the Panama or Nicaragua scheme 
will do. An express train can cross in five 
days, while the voyage from Vancouver to 
Yokohama in Japan, would only occupy 
twelve days steaming at the rate of fourteen 
or fifteen knots an hour. From England 
the whole journey to Shanghai and Hong 
Kong by this route would take only thirty- 
four or thirty-five days, and Australia now 
has direct communication with the mother 
country through a sister colony. 

Last of all, Japan would have much better 
communication with the European markets 
generally than is possible at the present time, 
if the English proposed l mail steamers 

1 " The negotiations with the Imperial Government for 
the establishment of a permanent line of first-class steam- 



5 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

should run, and it is said that the Canadian 
Pacific route would bring Japan within 
twenty-six or twenty-seven days' reach of 
England. 

On the other hand, if the Russian Siberian 
Railway scheme should be carried out to the 
Pacific at Vladivostock, it would open a very 
laree field of trade and commerce with inland 
Siberia to Japan. It would be still more so 
if the Chinese railways were extended so as 
to open the entire empire. 1 

Japan has not only a splendid future before 
her with regard to commercial greatness, but 
has every chance of rising to the head of 
manufacturing nations. In the latter respect 
she has advantages over Vancouver's Island 
and New South Wales, her rivals on the 
Pacific. She is known to possess valuable 

ships, suitable for service as armed cruisers in case of need, 
resulted in an official notification that Her Majesty's 
Government had decided to grant a subsidy of ^60,000 
per annum for a monthly service between Vancouver 
and Hong Kong, via Yokohama " (" Canada, Statistical 
Abstract and Record for the Year 1887," p. 306). 

1 " China is a storehouse of men and means ; its outer 
door has scarcely yet been opened " (R. E. Webster's 
"The Trade of the World," p. 317). 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 55 

-mineral resources, having good coal mines 
at Kiushiu and Hokkukaido. The climate 
of Japan varies in different localities, but on 
the whole is exceedingly healthy. Consist- 
ing as the country does of numerous islands 
she has many good harbours and trading 
ports. Wages are low though they might 
rise if a corresponding increase of labour is 
required. The credit system is fairly well 
carried out * and is growing day by day. 
There are about four hundred banks, inclu- 
ding the Bank of Japan ; and the medium 
of exchange has a regular standard. The 
principal exports are silk, tea, coal, and rice. 
Japan is not the producer of raw goods for 
manufacturing purposes, but simply works 
them up. Her area is not in comparison 

1 Sir H. Parkes, late Minister of England in Japan, said : 
" The statement of the national liabilities this year (1878), 
shows that Japan has kept faith with her foreign creditors, 
the interest on her foreign debt and the sum requisite for 
the payment of the amount of capital redeemed during 
the year having been duly provided. There is no reason 
to doubt that care will be taken to ensure punctual pay- 
ment in future on this account until the entire extinction 
of this debt in 1895." Japan has never failed to pay her 
foreign debts. 



5 6 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

with the commercial greatness which she 
will attain in the future. She may import 
raw goods from America, Australia, and 
the Asiatic countries, in the same way that 
England does. Her position enables her 
also to obtain wool from Australia and 
California, also cotton from China, Man- 
chooria, India, and Queensland. All these 
imports are worked up into different 
manufacturing goods. She has an ad- 
vantage here over England, for she has 
not so far to send her manufactured goods, 
and does not need, like England, to send, 
them all round the world. 

Thus we see Japan has ample scope from 
a commercial point of view, and has plenty of 
friendly countries close at home for the pro- 
duction of her raw material, and has great 
advantages in sea routes to America and 
Australia. 

The Japanese are born sailors, being 
islanders. 

There are several large steamship 
companies l whose ships are continually 
1 There is also a Maritime Insurance Company. 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC, 57 

plying along her own shores I and also to 
the mainland of China, and one company 
contemplates shortly opening communication 
with North and South America. It has 
often puzzled me why Japan does not hold 
closer relations with Australia, especially 
as Australia is becoming one of her most 
important neighbours in commerce. I can 
certainly predict that if this suggestion comes 
to pass, that together they will in the future 
hold the key of the Pacific trade. 

Australia and her near colonies have 
already begun to play an important part in 
the affairs of the Pacific ; and why should 
she not, considering their natural wealth and 
general progress ? European Powers have 
begun to take great interest, both commer- 
cially and diplomatically, in these colonies. 
England, France, Spain, and Holland long 
ago saw the advantage of having secured 
coaling stations in the Pacific, and England 
and France have always taken great care in 
selecting posts in the immediate vicinity of 

1 Light-houses — fifty-seven in number and some of 
them are very powerful. 



58 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

the sea route between America and Australia; 
and since the working of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway and the Panama Canal, they have 
begun to annex those islands which lie near 
the route from Panama to the Australian 
colonies, and from the latter to Vancouver. 
The French occupation of Tahiti and the 
Rapa (both containing good harbours) in 
1880 was with the distinct object of con- 
trolling the sea route from Panama to 
Sydney, Brisbane, and Auckland. England 
also began to fortify Jamaica in 1887, and 
she is now casting her eyes on Raratonga. 
The dispute regarding the New Hebrides 
and the Samoan Conference l were simply for 
the protection of the Vancou van- Australian - 
San - Franciscan sea-ways. England has 
lately annexed the Ellice Islands and un- 
doubtedly will shortly occupy the Gilbert and 
Charlotte Islands. 



1 The Samoan Convention declared the Samoan 
Islands to be neutral territory. The citizens and sub- 
jects of the signatory powers will enjoy equal rights and 
the independence of the islands is recognized with 
Malietou as king: Jan., 1890. 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 59 

Germany also has been considering the 
Asiatic-Australian routes, foreseeing that the 
whole Pacific question rests on that basis. In 
1884 she annexed New Guinea, and the Bis- 
marckian policy proved a severe blow to the 
British power in the North and West Pacific. 
There are three oreat sea r0 utes from New 
South Wales to Hong Kong and other parts 
of the North Pacific ; one travels eastward 
of the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia 
(6,000 miles) and the other two westward of 
the above-mentioned islands (5,500 and 5,000 
miles). 

The German occupation of New Guinea 
actually resulted in her having the entire 
control of these three important sea routes. 
The English possession of the Treasury 
Islands, the depot made there, and of the 
Louisiade Archipelago is certainly not strong 
enough to protect these routes, though they 
are very important for the defence of the 
Australian colonies. Even the trade route 
from Vancouver's Island to Brisbane has to 
a certain extent been endangered. It would 
be policy on England's part to annex the 



60 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Solomon Islands if she means to regain the 
prestige which she has lost owing to the 
Germanic policy of annexation in the 
Pacific. 

In order to firmly establish her power in 
this quarter, Germany, in 1885, raised a 
quarrel with Spain concerning the sovereignty 
of the Caroline and Pelew Islands, but this 
quarrel was composed by the mediation of 
the Pope. 

Frederick the Great "preferred regiments, 
as a ship cost as much as a regiment." 
Bismarck preferred " the Greater Germany," 
and his policy was " the German trade with 
the German flag " (i.e., the German flag shall 
go where German trade has already estab- 
lished a footing). This policy proved very 
successful, not only in the West Pacific, but 
also in the North Pacific and the eastern 
coast of Africa. Germany now is the chief 
colonizing rival of England. 

In 1883 Mr. Chester annexed all the parts 
of New Guinea with the adjacent islands 
lying between 141 deg. and 155 deg. of E. 
long. Lord Derby, however, annulled this 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 61 

annexation, regarding it as an unfriendly act, 
and he also assured the Colonial Government 
that " Her Majesty's Government are con- 
fident that no foreign power contemplates 
interference in New Guinea." This occurred 
in May, 1884. But this prognostication did 
not prove true, for in November of the same 
year Germany occupied New Guinea. 

This caused much public indignation in 
the English colonies against the Home 
Government, and the public of England 
recognized that the reasons and complaints 
of the Australian Colonies were right and just. 

The movement of Imperial Federation 
sprang up in England, the chief object of 
which was " a closer association between the 
Colonies and Great Britain and Ireland for 
common national purposes such as colonial 
and foreign policy, defence and trade." The 
result of this was the Colonial Conference in 
1887 ; and Lord Salisbury, offering a hearty 
welcome to the Colonial delegates, said : " I 
do not recommend you to indulge in schemes 
of Constitution making;" but also said : " It 
will be the parent of a long progeniture, 



62 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

and distant councils of the empire may, in 
some far-off time, look back to the meeting 
in this room as the root from which their 
greatness and beneficence sprang." 

The following subjects were submitted for 
discussion: (i) The local defence of ports 
other -than Imperial coaling stations ; (2) the 
naval defence of the Australian Colonies.; 
(3) measures of precaution in relation to 
the defences of colonial ports ; (4) various 
questions in connection with the military 
aspects of telegraph cables, their necessity 
for purpose of war, and their protection ; (5) 
questions relating to the employment and 
training of local or native troops to serve as 
garrisons of works of defence ; and, lastly 
(6), the promotion of commercial and social 
relations by the development of our postal 
and telegraphic communication. 

Thus, by means of this Conference, the 
military federation of the British Empire 
was established. By its efforts the English 
squadron in the China Sea and in the Aus- 
tralian seas are more closely connected 
together than they have been before, and, if 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC, 63 

needed, the English forces in the North 
Pacific would be reinforced by Australian 
troops. We saw an instance of this in the 
late Egyptian campaign. 

One more question remains to be ven- 
tilated, viz., whether England is able to 
secure absolute power in the North Pacific 
with the naval and military forces she has at 
her command there, using Hong Kong as 
the centre of war preparations. 

I answer in the negative. It could be 
maintained only by an occupier of the Island 
of Formosa, the " Malta" of the North 
Pacific, which lies between the North China 
Sea and the South China Sea. Its area is 
estimated at 14,978 square miles. It has a 
healthy climate, tempered by the influence of 
the sea and its mountains. Coal is to be 
found in considerable quantities, although not 
of the best quality. Its natural products are 
plentiful, such as sugar, tea, and rice. It 
possesses several good harbours, one of 
which, Tam-sui, or Howei, is surrounded by 
hills upwards of 2,000 feet high, and has a 
depth of 3 j- fathoms with a bar of 7J feet. 






64 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

From this island, with a good navy, any 
power almost might be exerted over the 
North and South China Seas, and over the 
Pacific highways from Hong Kong to 
Australia, Panama, Nicaragua, San Francisco, 
Vancouver, Japan, Shanghai. All these are 
in fairly close proximity to Formosa, and the 
Shanghai route to Hong Kong actually runs 
between the island and the China mainland. 

There remain still two or three more facts 
which must not be neglected in order to 
obtain a fair view of this important question. 

(a) It is a fine post for any offensive 
attack upon China, and also a stronghold for 
an attack upon the British power in the 
Pacific. If fortified and defended by a navy 
from any other power, Formosa would prove 
a great rival to Hong Kong, which would 
lose at least half of its importance, commer- 
cially and strategically, and which has already 
been somewhat weakened by the French 
occupation of Cochin China, in 1882. l 

1 The whole history of the French in the East is 
indissolubly bound up with the history of their efforts to 
destroy our Eastern supremacy. Mauritius was occupied 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 65 

(6) In case of Asiatic complications, Eng- 
land would naturally expect reinforcements 
from Australia, and from the mother country 
by the Canadian Pacific Railway, but after 
they arrive at Vancouver, and are on 
transport, they will be at the mercy either of 
Japan or the occupier, whoever it may be, of 
Formosa. Even the Bismarckian policy re 
New Guinea would be broken down, i.e., all 
commercial and strategical communication 
between Hong Kong and Australia would be 
seriously incommoded by the occupation of 
Formosa. 

(c) If China herself occupied Formosa 
thoroughly, 1 and allied with Japan who 

to enable French cruisers to prey on our East Indiamen. 
Louis XIV. volunteered armed aid to Annam in order 
to cut off Calcutta from Canton. A French occupation 
of Tonkin is a serious matter. French cruisers supplied 
with coal from the mines of Tonkin would lie in the fair- 
way of our China trade, Burmah and Calcutta would 
be effectually blockaded, and our outlying Oriental 
possessions grievously threatened (C. B. Norman's 
" Tonkin and France in the Far East"). 

1 The inhabitants of the eastern region refuse to 
recognize the Chinese authority. China cannot control 
the people of Formosa at all. There is a proverb, 
" Every three years an outbreak, every five a rebellion." 

5 



66 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

occupies the Loo-Choo Islands, they would 
be impregnable in the sea above 20 of 
N.lat. 

Again, if the occupier of the Loo Choo 
Islands T also occupied Formosa on a military 
basis, she again would have nearly absolute 
control of the North Pacific. England would 
be supreme if she held both Hong Kong and 
Formosa; Germany if the holder would not 
only complete the Bismarckian policy in New 
Guinea, but would start a new Germanic 
policy in the North Pacific. 

Thus we see that Japan, China, England, 
and Germany, might become important actors 
in the China Sea, while Russia and China 
would be actors behind the scenes in Man- 
chooria and Mongolia. 

The whole result of a historical study of 
the foreign policy of England and Russia tells 
us that Russia has increased her influence by 

1 In 1873 a Japanese vessel was wrecked on the 
eastern coast of Formosa and the crew massacred by the 
savages. The Japanese Government sent an expedition 
which was perfectly successful. Eighteen of the tribes in 
Formosa were defeated and subjugated. 



TAP AN AND THE PACIFIC. 67 

annexing and conquering in every * direction 
of the compass with Moscow as the centre 
of the Empire. Peter the Great started in 
the direction of the Baltic, i.e., north-west ; 
Catherine II. towards the Crimea and Poland 
in a south and westerly direction ; Alexander 
I. confined his attention to the Balkans and 
Caucasus, while Nicholas improved on the 
same directions, and marched into Central 
Asia, and since 1858 the Russian attention 
has been turned on the East, i.e., the Pacific. 

England, on the other hand, has added to 
her fame by establishing the following naval 
and coaling stations along the great highways 
of trade: — 

Heligoland in the North Sea, the Channel 
Islands, Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus, Perim, 
Aden, Ceylon, Singapore, Hong Kong and 
Labuan ; the Accession Islands, St. Helena, 

1 The Russian frontier has been advanced toward 
Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna, and Paris — 

about 700 miles 

Towards Constantinople „ 500 „ 

„ Stockholm „ 630 „ 

„ Teheran ,, 1000 „ 

„ Peshawar „ 1300 „ 



68 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

and the Cape of Good Hope, in Africa; 
the Bermuda Islands, Halifax, the West 
Indies, especially Jamaica, and the Falkland 
Islands in America, besides many important 
islands in the South and West Pacific. 

By means of these, in the present days of 
steam, she has been able to maintain her 
place as the Queen of the Maritime World — a 
position superior to Russia, although the 
latter country is lord of one-seventh of the 
globe. 

With such great rivals, we can surely 
predict that at some future time Russia will 
work her way into Manchooria and Mongolia 
to the Yellow Sea and attack the North 
Pacific. " Everything is obtained by pains," 
said Peter the Great, in 1722; " even India 
was not easily found after the long journey 
round the Cape of Good Hope." z To 
this Soimonf, who afterwards devoted 
himself for seventeen years to the explora- 
tion of Siberia, and was its governor, said 
that " Russia had a much nearer road to 
India, and explained the water system of 
1 E. Schuyler's " Peter the Great," vol. ii. p. 592. 



JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 69 

Siberia, how easily and with how little land 
carriage goods could be sent from Russia 
to the Pacific and then by ships to India." 
Peter replied, "It is a long distance and of 
no use yet awhile." But in the present days 
of telegraphy and railroads it is not a great 
distance at all. 

England will without doubt occupy Formosa 
in order to uphold her power in the same 
quarter. The result it would be almost 
impossible to foretell. But this fact remains 
a certainty that will one day come to pass, 
that England and Russia will at some future 
period fight for supremacy in the North 
Pacific. Japan lies between the future 
combatants ! 



PART II. 
THE EASTERN QUESTION. 



I. 



FOREIGN POLICY OF ENGLAND DURING THE 
SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURIES. 

The Spanish Empire, its power, and its decline — Com- 
mercial rivalry of England and Holland — The ascen- 
dency of France ; threatened by the Grand Alliance — 
The Spanish succession and the Bourbon league — 
England s connection with the war of the Austrian 
succession — The Seven Years' War — Revival of the 
Anglo-Bourbon struggle in the American and Napo- 
leonic wars. 

Charles V. of Spain in the height of his 
power reigned over almost the whole of 
Western Europe. Besides being King of 
Spain he was Archduke of Austria, Duke 
of Burgundy, and Lord of Spanish-America. 
" The Emperor," said Sir William Cecil, " is 
aiming at the sovereignty of Europe which 
cannot be obtained without the suppression 



74 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

of the reformed religion, and unless he crushes 
the English nation he cannot crush the 
Reformation." Perceiving this important 
fact, Charles directed his attention to Eng- 
land, and offered the hand of his son Philip 
to Mary of England who was anxious to 
bring back the Catholic Faith into England. 

Their marriage took place in 1554, and 
proved a great help towards re-establishing 
the Papal supremacy in England, besides 
making Spain and England strong political 
allies. 

Charles V. abdicated in 1555 and spent the 
rest of his life in seclusion at San Yusti, and 
the great part of his dominions, viz., the 
Colonies, Italy, and the Netherlands descended 
to his son, Philip II., who was by his marriage 
with Mary nominal King of England. 

On the childless death of Mary the English 
crown descended to Elizabeth in 1558. Philip 
thereupon offered marriage to her, but the 
virgin queen wisely declined. England was 
by this refusal emancipated from Papal 
interference and the tyrannies of Philip, 
and Elizabeth resolved to carry out her 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 75 

religious and political views independently. 
Her doctrinal 1 reform and foreign policy 
naturally made Spain her bitter enemy. 

In the Netherlands Philip's general conduct 
raised the inhabitants to revolt, and under the 
leadership of the Prince of Orange they soon 
obtained a strong position, and eventually, in 
1648, after a long and protracted struggle, 
their independence was recognized. 

Thus the two great sea powers of Philip's 
age were both common enemies against the 
arrogance of Spain and were consequently 
united. 

In France a similar religious struggle, fierce 
and bitter, was raging. Civil war was rampant 
and atrocities numerous, the massacre on St. 
Bartholomew's Day being a notable example. 
In 1585 the Catholic party formed the 
" League," whose main objects were the 
annihilation of the reformed party, and the 

1 " The separation of the Church of England from 
that of Rome, formally accomplished under Henry VIII.,. 
was a political and legal rather than a religious reforma- 
tion. The doctrinal changes followed under Edward VI. 
and Elizabeth" (Taswell-Langmead's "English Consti- 
tutional History," p. 399). 



76 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

elevation of the Guises to the French throne 
through an alliance with Philip II. of Spain. 
Its manifesto stated that French subjects 
were not bound to recognize a prince who 
was not a Catholic. The death of Henri III. 
made the situation worse, for two candidates 
for the French throne appeared, — Henry of 
Navarre, who was supported by the Huguenots 
and the Cardinal of Bourbon, whom the 
Leaguers followed, while Philip II. laid claim 
to the throne on behalf of his daughter by 
his third marriage with Elizabeth of Valois, 
sister of Henri III. Hence, after the acces- 
sion of the House of Bourbon, a coalition of 
England, Holland, and France was formed 
against Philip II. of Spain, and from 1600 
to 1660 the European coalition was England, 
Holland, and France, versus the Spanish 
Empire. 

In the meantime Spain had acquired 
Portugal in 1580, by which both countries 
became one state, and Philip II. sovereign of 
the whole oceanic world. Portugal for sixty 
years remained a dependency of Spain, and 
then the Spanish Empire had attained to vast 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. yj 

and unwieldy dimensions. She could no 
longer defend her colonies from foreign inva- 
sion and plunder. The Dutch established 
themselves wherever they pleased, and 
plundered and occupied most of the 
Portuguese possessions. It has been truly 
said that the Colonial Empire of Holland 
was founded at the expense first of Portugal, 
and ultimately of Spain. 1 

England at this time was rapidly rising 
into the front rank of European nations. In 
1588 the " Invincible Armada " appeared in 
the English Channel and was annihilated 
and disgraced. This was the introduction 
to that English colonial greatness on which 
the sun never sets. 

1 " In the sixteenth century all Europe was aghast at 
the designs of Philip II. of Spain. He had the great mines 
of the New World, or at least levied a heavy tax on their 
produce. He seemed to be possessed of inexhaustible 
riches. He was baffled, beaten, made bankrupt by the 
Dutch, in whose country there was not an ounce of 
natural gold or silver, who got all their money by trade, 
were rapidly becoming the richest nation of Europe when 
Philip had ruined Spain and brought down the Genoese 
traders, on his declaring himself bankrupt " (J. E. 
Thorold Rogers's, "The Economic Interpretation of 
History," p. 95). 



7 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Then came the beginning of the fall of the 
Spanish Empire. In 1640 Cardinal Richelieu, 
the ablest French statesman, provoked Portugal 
to rebel, his object being the aggrandizement 
of his own country abroad. The revolt proved 
successful under John of Braganza, and again 
Portugal posed as a nation. This proved a 
deadly blow to Spanish power, and Cromwell 
finally crushed her power by his invincible 
foreign policy. He seized Jamaica while 
Charles II. acquired Bombay. 

This gradual decay of Spain had a 
corresponding inspiriting effect on England 
and Holland. Both became commercial and 
colonial rivals one with another. Ashley 
Cooper said, " Holland is our great rival in 
the ocean and in the New World. Let us 
destroy her though she be a Protestant 
Power ; let us destroy her with the help of 
a Catholic Power." I 

1 " Till this time our merchants were struggling to gain 
a footing and open up trade between England and 
different quarters of the globe, and endeavouring to prove 
that the encouragement of trade was for the royal honour 
and benefit . . . and their interests coincided with the 
national ambition of out- doing the Dutch, who would 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 79 

The great naval victories of England and 
the Navigation Acts, 165 1, 1663, and 1672, r 
crushed the Dutch carrying trade and navy, 
and England now began to assume the 
supremacy of the whole oceanic world which 
has from that time never departed from her. 

However, France gradually filled the breach 
left by Holland and Spain, and became a great 
naval rival of England. The strength of all 
the nations round her had been considerably 
weakened by the Thirty Years' War, while 
her commercial and manufacturing progress 
soon made her one of the strongest European 
Powers. 

From 1660 to 1672 may be regarded as the 

not acknowledge our sovereignty on the sea, and of thus 
attaining a mercantile supremacy throughout the world " 
(Dr. Cunningham's " Growth of English Industry and 
Commerce," p. 325). 

1 (1) 165 1. That the importation of goods into 
England, except in English ships, or in the ships of the 
nation producing the goods, was forbidden. 

(2) 1663. That the colonies should receive no 
goods whatsoever by foreign vessels. 

(3) 1672. That all the principal articles of com- 
merce should be prohibited from being imported into 
England unless by English ships manned by a crew of 
whom at least three-quarters were English subjects. 



8o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

period of the great national rise of France. 
Louis XIV. laid claim to Belgium and 
Burgundy in 1665 on the death of Philip IV. 
of Spain, and in order to enforce his claim his 
army entered Flanders and Burgundy, but 
owing to the pressure of the Triple Alliance l 
the unfavourable Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 
was concluded. 

However, later on Louis broke the Triple 
Alliance and secured the valuable assistance 
of England and Spain, and with the assistance 
of the former nation he made a concerted 
attack upon Holland. France had now 
reached the topmost rung of the ladder 
between 1678 and 1688. 

About this period the struggle against 
absolute monarchy was nearly concluded in 
England, and was further strengthened in 
1689 by the Declaration of Rights. The 
English crown was offered to William of 
Orange and Mary and accepted by them. 
Already this personal union had caused an 
alliance to be formed between England and 
Holland, at that time the two great Protestant 

1 England, Holland, and Sweden. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 81 

Powers of Europe, against France the great 
Roman Catholic upholder. 

If France had remained quiet during the 
above-mentioned internal discord, England 
would have been unable to form the " Grand 
Alliance." Thus Louis committed a great 
error in assuming an offensive attitude 
against the two Protestant Powers. This 
caused a coalition to be formed against him 
of England, Holland, Spain, and Austria. 

This new system in Europe existed from 
1688 to 1 700. Then new complications arose, 
for Charles II., King of Spain, died childless, 
and the extinction of the Spanish House of 
Hapsburg seemed to be near at hand. The 
question of a Spanish successor now occupied 
the minds of the European cabinets after the 
Peace of Ryswick. 

There were three claimants : Louis XIV., 
Leopold L, and the Electoral Prince of 
Bavaria. The dominions of the Spanish 
sovereign were still extensive, viz., Spain 
itself, the Milan territory, Italy, the Nether- 
lands, and Spanish-America. To unite the 
Spanish monarchy with that of France or 

6 



82 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Austria, would destroy the European balance 
of power. Consequently a general council 
with regard to the succession took place, and 
the First Partition Treaty was drawn up. 
Charles II. of Spain, however, made a will, 
appointing Louis' grandson, Philip of Anjou, 
as his successor, so Louis XIV. determined 
to uphold the will rather than the treaty. 

In 1 701 the Duke of Anjou was peacefully 
proclaimed king as Philip V. Louis XIV. 
on hearing this boasted that " II n'y a plus 
de Pyrenees." This Bourbon succession in 
Spain changed the European system, and 
henceforth we have England, Holland, and 
Austria, as opposed to France and Spain. 

The Duke of Marlborough, who combined 
the qualities of a general, diplomatist, and 
minister skilfullv together, was the leader of 
the Second Grand Alliance against the 
Houses of Bourbon. 

The inability of France to defend the 
Spanish Empire, followed by the War of the 
Spanish Succession, paved the way for the 
Peace of Utrecht (1 713). By this treaty the 
Bourbons lost Italy and the Low Countries, but 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. S3 

retained the throne of Spain, thus still leaving 
that country open to the influence of France. 
Hence the permanent alliance of France 
and Spain was formed in the eighteenth 
century. 

Meanwhile Holland had fallen into decay 
through internal exhaustion caused by her 
struggle against foreign enemies ; thus 
England had taken her place as the great 
maritime and colonial power. Thus we see 
the struggle between England and France 
(supported by Spain) for the oceanic world 
in the eighteenth century. 

By the Utrecht Treaty, France ceded 
to England Newfoundland, Arcadia, and 
Hudson's Bay territory, while Spain also 
ceded Gibraltar, the Minorca Island, and 
the Asiento, the occupation of the two former 
making another bitter enemy to England. 

Spain had already a hatred of English 
trade with her colonies in America, so that 
only a single English ship was conceded by 
the Treaty of Utrecht, giving thereby only a 
limited right of trade in South America to 
England. But this was evaded by a vast 



84 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

system of smuggling which arose and proved 
a constant source of dispute between England 
and Spanish revenue officers and rendered 
peace almost impossible. 

In 1 733 the first secret parte de famille 
had been concluded between France and 
Spain for the ruin of English maritime trade. 
The American coast was keenly watched, and 
the result was "The Jenkins' Ear War," 1739. 

Charles VI., having no son, established an 
order of succession by the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion, signed by nearly all the European 
Powers, by which his daughter, Maria Theresa, 
was to succeed to all the hereditary dominions 
of Hapsburg. But on his death two 
claimants appeared on the scene — the Elector 
of Bavaria and Philip V. of Spain. 

Walpole did his best to form a Grand 
Alliance between Hanover and Prussia, also 
between England, Holland, and Austria 
However, Frederick's claim to. Silesia being 
refused by Austria, the French and Prussian 
armies crossed the Rhine, 1741. Thus 
France began the War of the Austrian Suc- 
cession. In 1743 the Battle of Dettingen 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 85 

was fought between England and France, the 
former fighting on behalf of Maria Theresa, 
and as yet feeling her way carefully before 
she was brought into direct conflict with the 
latter Power. 

After the Treaty of Worms the question 
at issue was changed to that of naval 
supremacy, and the War of the Austrian 
Succession fell into the background. 

In 1744, after an attempted invasion of 
England on behalf of the Pretender, France 
declared war against both England and 
Austria. This was bad policy, for if she 
had fought against one enemy at a 
time she would have stood a far better 
chance of crushing England's power. Pro- 
fessor Seeley says, 'Tf we compare together 
those seven wars between 1688 and 181 5, we 
shall be struck with the fact that most of 
them were double wars, and that there is one 
aspect between France and England, another 
between France and Germany. ... It is 
France," says he, "that suffers by it." l 

England and Holland firmly allied with 
1 Prof. Seeley's "Expansion of England," p. 95. 



86 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

one another, and German troops were 
subsidized by England. 

Against this alliance the second secret 
parte defamille was founded. 

Battles were fought on all sides, by land 
and sea, both in Europe and America. In 
spite of French successes at Fontenoy and 
Laufeldt, she was severely defeated both on 
the sea and in America. Louisburg fell, Cape 
Breton Island was captured, and many other 
losses sustained. At length the Treaty of 
Aix-la-Chapelle brought a nominal peace into 
the oceanic world, in 1748. 

In 1756 this nominal peace came to an 
end, and the Seven Years' War 1 was fought 
out, both in the Old and New Worlds; Pitt 

1 " There was between England and France during the 
Seven Years' War the most disastrous struggle in which 
France was ever engaged. For all the wars in Europe, 
from the Peace of Utrecht to the outbreak of the great 
Continental War, were waged on behalf of monopolies of 
commerce, or, to be more accurate, monopolies of market, 
for success meant the exclusion of the beaten nation 
from the markets now secured by the victorious rival. 
At the end of the Seven Years' War France was stripped 
of nearly every colony she possessed. At the beginning 
of it she was the rival of England in North America and 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 87 

the elder then appeared as a great actor on 
England's side, and used his great talents to 
crush down the French Colonial Empire, and 
to obtain for his country the sole mastery of 
the oceanic world. 

He was essentially a war Minister : "The 
war was vigorously carried on throughout 
1758 in every part of the globe where 
French could be found, and in 1759 Pitt's 
energy and his tact in choosing men every- 
where were rewarded by the extraordinary 
success by land and sea." l 

The glorious death of Wolfe on the 
Heights of Abraham was followed by the 
surrender of Montreal and the brilliant 
victory of Plassey in India by Clive over 
the French. Pitt assured his countrymen 
that "they should not be losers " (in giving 
pecuniary assistance to Frederick the Great) 
"and that he would conquer America for them 
in Germany." 

in India. At the end of it she had scarce a foothold in 
either " (J. E. Thorold Rogers, " The Economic Inter- 
pretation of History," p. no), 

1 Macaulay's famous Essay on the Earl of Chatham. 



88 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

This proved true. In 1762 the fall of 
the French Colonial Empire occurred, and 
England obtained Canada and India. 

This wonderful statesman 1 undoubtedly 
made England the first country in the world. 

Three Wars of Revenge. 

" A height of prosperity and glory unknown 
to any former age," 2 was reached in England 
during the administration of Chatham. Now 
the tide of fortune began to run against 
England. 

The passing of the famous Stamp Act, and 
many other "repeated injuries and usurpa- 
tions/' 3 made the relations between England 

1 " His (the elder Pitt) greatness is throughout 
identified with the Expansion of England ; he is a states- 
man of Greater Britain. It is in the buccaneering war 
with Spain that he sows his political wild oats ; his glory 
is won in the great colonial duel with France ; his old 
age is spent in striving to avert schism in Greater 
Britain " (Prof. Seeley's " Expansion of England," 
p. 144). 

2 The epitaph on Chatham's monument in West- 
minster Abbey. 

3 The declaration of American Independence. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 89 

and the American Colonies virtually hostile. 
At last the Colonies revolted, and it gave 
Spain and France the long-wished -for op- 
portunity of taking revenge upon England. 
France and Spain formed the third pacte 
de fami lie, and assisted the insurgent 
Colonies, and the independence of the United 
States was acknowledged in 1783. 

In 1789 the French Revolution broke out, 
and the first effect felt in England was the 
breaking-up of the Whig party. 

In 1792 Austria and Prussia invaded 
France in order to put down the Republicans 
in that country. In retaliation France 
determined to declare war against all 
countries governed by kings, which principle 
she established by the " Decree of November 
19th," and in 1793 she declared war against 
England and Holland. 

The younger Pitt had now come to the 
front. He was an economist and advocated 
a peace policy. In the spring of 1792 he 
reduced the navy and confidently looked 
forward to at least fifteen years of peace. 
There is no doubt that if France had 



9 o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

remained quiet his hopes would have proved 
correct, and that the west bank of the 
Rhine would now be under French rule. 

But France was eager to revenge past 
injuries put upon her by England ; and, as if 
in answer to her desires, the second Alex- 
ander the Great appeared in Napoleon, and 
began "alarming the Old World with his 
dazzling schemes of aggrandizement." 

Against England his whole energies were 
directed. " Let us be masters," said he, " of 
the Channel for six hours and we are 
masters of the world." : In 1798, he 
captured Malta, occupied Egypt, and under- 
took a campaign in Syria, as a furtherance to 
his desires of obtaining India, at the same 
time retaining his ideas with regard to 

1 "As in the American War, France avenges on 
England her expulsion from the New World, so under 
Napoleon she makes Titanic efforts to recover her lost 
place there. This, indeed, is Napoleon's fixed view with 
regard to England. He sees in England never the 
island, the European state, but always the world Empire, 
the network of dependencies and colonies and islands 
covering every sea, among which he was himself 
destined to find his prison and his grave " (Seeley's 
" Expansion of England,"' p. 33). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 91 

England. Malta to Egypt, Egypt to India, 
India to England. 

In 1802 a momentary universal peace 
occurred. But Napoleon could not rest, his 
ambition spurred him on. His .anger was 
again kindled by the English retention of 
Malta, after his defeat in Egypt, and he saw 
if Malta was wrested from him his lofty 
schemes would be undermined. In 1803 he 
again declared war against England and 
Holland. He arrested all the English 
residents in France between the a^es of 
sixteen and sixty and kept them confined. 

The younger Pitt was just the statesman fit 
to cope with him, and frustrate his aims. He 
aimed at a European coalition, 1 by which all 
threatening dangers from the overwhelming 
greatness of one nation might be averted. 

1 The first coalition of England, Prussia, Holland, and 
Sweden, was for the purpose of keeping the European 
Peace. 

The second coalition (1 799-1 801), composed of 
Russia, England, Austria, Portugal, Naples, and the 
Ottoman Empire. 

The third coalition (1805), composed of England^ 
Russia, Austria, and Sweden. 



92 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

On October 21, 1805, the glorious victory 
at Trafalgar, the outcome and consummation 
of Nelson's inspiring command, " England 
expects every man to do his duty," broke the 
naval power of France. And yet this was 
followed by the capitulation of Ulm, the 
defeat at Austerlitz, and the subsequent 
Treaty of Presburg, which broke up the 
coalition of England, Russia, and Austria, 
and seriously affected Pitt's health thereby. 
Truly, " Austerlitz killed Pitt." : 

At once Napoleon proceeded to turn the 
whole forces he had on the Continent against 
England, especially after the Peace of Tilsit, 
(1807). He first attacked England with the 
" Continental System," i.e., he prohibited all 
direct and indirect European trade with the 



1 " Though he was still but forty-seven, the hollow 
voice and wasted frame of the great Minister had long 
told that death was near, and the blow to his hopes 
proved fatal. ' Roll up that map,' he said, pointing to 
the map of Europe, 'it will not be wanted these ten 
years.' Once only he rallied from stupor; and those 
who bent over him caught a faint murmur of ' My 
country ! How I leave my country ! ' " (Green's " Short 
History of English People," p. 799). 



. THE EASTERN QUESTION. 93 

British Isles. This he confirmed by the 
Decrees of Berlin (1806) and Milan (1807). 

In 181 2 he invaded Russia and entered 
the famous city with the cry of " Moscow ! 
Moscow ! " Even at that moment, however, 
his real aim of attack was England, across 
the Channel. 

England was ever uppermost in his 
thoughts. " He conquers Germany, but 
why ? Because Austria and Russia, subsi- 
dized by England, march against him while 
he is brooding at Boulogne over the conquest 
of England. When Prussia was conquered, 
what was his first thought ? That now he 
has a new weapon against England, since he 
can impose the Continental System upon all 
Europe. Why does he occupy Spain and 
Portugal ? It is because they are maritime 
countries, with fleets and colonies that may be 
used against England." * 

Napoleon was driven out of Moscow by 
fire, and his return march turned literally into 
a defeat, while his plan of a direct attack in 

1 Prof. Seeley's " Expansion of England," p. 105. 



94 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

England, through Belgium, three years after, 
was frustrated at Waterloo. 

Thus the scene of the great Napoleonic 
drama in English history closed on June 
1 8, 1815. J 



II. 



FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA DURING THE 
REIGNS OF PETER THE GREAT, CATHERINE 



Peter the Great, and establishment of Russian power on 
the Baltic — Consequent collision with the Northern 
States and the Maritime Powers — Catherine II. and 
Poland — First partition — Russia reaches the Black 
Sea — Russo-Austrian alliance against Turkey opposed 
by Pitt — Second and third partitions of Poland — Rise 
of Prussia — Alexander I. and the conquest of Turkey 
— Treaty of Tilsit — Peace of Bucharest — Congress of 
Vienna — French influence in the East destroyed. 

Peter the Great (16S9-1725). 

The Russian territory now extends over one- 
seventh of the globe, and Alexander III. 
rules over more than 100,000,000 souls. 
Russia is a powerful political rival not only 
of England alone, but of all the European 
Powers. 1 

1 Napoleon, at St. Helena, prophesied that before a cen- 
tury was over Europe would be Cossack or Republican. 



96 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

However, on Peter the Great's accession to 
the throne, his country covered an area of 
only 265,000 square miles, and no harbours 
were to be found either on the Baltic or the 
Black Sea. This was felt to be a serious 
obstacle for a rising Power. Peter himself 
said, in the preface to the " Maritime Regu- 
lations " : " For some years I had the fill of 
my desires on Lake Pereyaslavl, but finally 
it eot too narrow for me. I then went to the 
Kubensky Lake, but that was too shallow. 
I then decided to see the open sea and began 
often to beg the permission of my mother to 
go to Archangel." I His first and great 
object was to establish harbours on the Baltic 
or the Black Sea. 

The Turks were the preliminary object of 
his attack. The first campaign against Azof 
(1695) proved a failure, but a new campaign 
was started again in 1696, and the Czar's 
" bravery and his genius " were rewarded with 

1 " The English victory at La Hogue, and the revival 
of the trade with Holland, had much to do with Peter's 
visit to Archangel " (E. Schuyler's " Peter the Great,' ? 
vol. i. p. 276). 



The Expansion of Russia in Europe 




THE EASTERN QUESTION. 99 

a great victory over Azof. Here begins the 
modern history of Russia. 

Immediately after the capture of Azof 
Peter determined to carry out his design of 
creating a large fleet on the Black Sea. For 
the purpose, " no sooner had the festivities 
in Moscow ended than, at a general 
council of the boyars, it was decided to send 
3,000 families of peasants and 3,000 streltsi 
and soldiers to populate the empty town of 
Azof and firmly to establish the Russian 
power at the mouth of the Don. At a second 
council Peter stated the absolute necessity 
for a large fleet, and apparently with such 
convincing arguments, that the assembly 
decided that one should be built. Both 
civilians and clergy were called upon for 
sacrifices." l 

Peter also sent fifty men of the highest 
families in Russia to Italy, Holland, and 
England, to study the art of ship-building. 
Peter himself visited Holland and England 
that he might learn ship-building. " One 
thing, however, he could not learn there, and 

1 E. Schuyler's " Peter the Great," vol. i. p. 323. 

LofC. 



ioo JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

that was the construction of galleys and 
o-alliots, such as were used in the Medi- 
terranean, and would be serviceable in the 
Bosphorus and on the coast of the Crimea. 
For this he desired to go to Venice." l This 
clearly shows us that Peter had conceived 
the idea of establishing a strong navy on the 
Black Sea. 

The revolt of the streltsi recalled him 
home ; however, he found no difficulty in 
suppressing the insurrection. 

After this, he sent an envoy to the 
Ottoman Empire to obtain permission for 
the Russian fleet to enter the Black Sea, to 
which the Porte replied : " The Black Sea 
and all its coasts are ruled by the Sultan 
alone. They have never been in the posses- 
sion of any other Power, and since the Turks 
have gained sovereignty over this sea, from 
time immemorial no foreign ship has ever 
sailed its water, nor ever will sail them." 

Meanwhile Charles XII., King of Sweden, 
be^an to assume an attitude of hostilitv to 
Peter, and the Battle of Narva was fought, 
1 E. Schuyler's "Peter the Great," vol. i. p. 368. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 101 

where Peter was miserably defeated. After 
this war, Charles made Russia the great 
object of his attack instead of Poland. He 
said, " I will treat with the Czar at Moscow." 
Peter replied, " My brother Charles wishes 
to play the part of Alexander, but he will 
not find me Darius." The Battle of Pultawa 
(1709) soon decided Peter's superiority, and 
the Peace of Nystadt (172 1) added the 
Baltic provices and a number of islands in 
the Baltic to Russia. 

In 1703 "a great window for Russia to 
look out at Europe" — so Count Algaratti 
called St. Petersburg — was made by Peter on 
the marshes of the Neva. This step firmly 
established Russian power on the Baltic. 

But to establish Russian power on the 
Baltic at all was as great a mistake as ever 
has been committed by so shrewd a states- 
man as Peter the Great. The predominance 
of Russia in the Baltic with her strong navy 
threatened the interest of the commerce and 
carrying-trade of the English and Dutch. 
Hence it was natural enough that England 
and Holland, two great maritime powers, 



102 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

should have joined to protect their interest in 
the Baltic as well as the integrity of Sweden 
against Russian aggression. In the case of 
the Northern War, England had formed an 
alliance with Sweden and sent her fleet to 
the Baltic under command of Admiral Norris 
to prevent the Russian sway on those waters. 
Had Peter thought less of the importance 
of the Baltic, and concentrated his energies 
on obtaining a sure foothold in the Crimea, 
Constantinople would now be a Russian 
southern capital. 

Catherine II. ( i 762-1 796). 

The Seven Years' War had been brought 
to a finish when Catherine II. ascended the 
Russian throne. The next great European 
complication was brought about by the affairs 
of Poland. 

On the death of Augustus III., Stainslaius 
Poniatowski was elected King of Poland, and 
at the request of Prussia and Russia the 
dissenters, adherents of the Greek Church 
and the Protestants, received all civil rights. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 103 

In opposition to this a Confederation of 
Bar was formed in 1768, with the object of 
dethroning the King. Catherine now began 
to interfere with Poland on behalf of the Greek 
Christians, and supported the King with 
her Russian army. This interference made 
her practically mistress of Poland. Turkey, 
an ally of the Confederacy, being alarmed at 
the growing Russian influence and being 
urged on by France, declared war upon 
Russia in order to resist the progress of 
Catherine in Poland ; but this proved dis- 
astrous, as she was miserably defeated, both 
on land and sea, and brought to the verge 
of ruin. This Russian success alarmed 
Western Europe, and especially the two 
neighbouring Christian Powers, Prussia and- 
Austria, each of whom had a special interest 
in the existence of Poland and Turkey. 
Catherine would not make peace without 
acquiring territory as a compensation for her 
exertions and outlay, while Prussia and 
Austria would not allow her to do this unless 
they acquired a certain amount of territory 
themselves. Hence the First Partition of 



104 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Poland took place, by which the three Powers 
secured equal aggrandizement, Russia re- 
ceiving the eastern part of Lithuania as her 
share. 

In 1774 the Treaty of Kutschouk Kain- 
ardji was concluded with Turkey, by which 
the independence of the Mongol Tartars in 
the Crimea was acknowledged by the Sultan ; 
Russia obtained the right of protection over 
all the Christian subjects of the Porte within 
a certain limit, and also the right of free 
navigation in all Turkish waters for trading 
vessels. This treaty firmly planted Russia 
on the northern coasts of the Black Sea. 

In 17S3 the Crimea was incorporated with 
Russia, and in 1787 Catherine visited the 
southern part of Russia as far as Kherson, on 
the Black Sea. Joseph II. of Austria, on 
hearing of her approach to his dominions, 
hastened to meet her, and together they 
journeyed through the Crimea, the Czarina 
unfolding to the Emperor both her own plans 
and those of Potemkin, her favourite, viz., 
to expel all the Turks from Europe, re- 
establish the old Empire of Greece, and 



THE EASTERN QUESTION, 105 

place her younger grandson Constantine on 
the throne of Constantinople. Joseph fell 
in with her view, and it was hinted that 
something like a Western Empire should 
be also constituted and placed under the 
Austrian sway. In this way a division of the 
Ottoman Empire was contemplated between 
the two countries. This soon aroused the 
suspicions of Turkey, and war was again 
declared. But now it was two against one, 
and the fate of Turkey again seemed sealed. 
William Pitt was the first statesman who 
directly opposed Russia and tendered assis- 
tance to Turkey against Russian encroaching 
power. His foreign policy of opposition to 
Russia has been followed more or less by 
generations of English Ministers. The 
Triple Alliance of England, Prussia, and 
Holland was formed by Pitt against the 
" Colossus of the North," in order to preserve 
the balance of power in Europe, and the death 
of Joseph II., saved Turkey again. Pitt, by 
means of this Alliance, demanded that a peace 
be made between Russia and Turkey on the 
status quo ante bclluni> and threatened to 



106 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

maintain his demand by arms. The English 
people, however, cared very little about a 
Russian invasion of Turkey, while Catherine 
disregarded Pitt's threats. 

Soon after a peace between Russia and 
Turkey was concluded at J assy, by which 
Turkey ceded Oczakow and the land be- 
tween the Dnieper, Bug, and Dniester, con- 
taining several good harbours, and notably 
Odessa ; the protectorate of Russia over 
Tifiis and Kartalinia was also recognized. 

By the above-mentioned acquisitions she 
felt certain that very soon Constantinople 
would be in her hands. However, a 
nearer, and, in her opinion, a more im- 
portant matter engaged her attention. In 
1792 the new Constitution of Poland was 
drawn up by Ignaz Potocki, converting the 
Elective Monarchy into an hereditary one, 
the House of Saxony supplying a dynasty of 
kings. The Confederacy of Jargowitz, which 
was formed in opposition to this new Consti- 
tution, called in the help of Russia. 

This now seemed to be a grand oppor- 
tunity for Russia to finally annex Poland, 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 107 

because the deaths of Frederick the Great 
(1786) and Joseph (1790), and the French 
Revolution, which occupied the attention of 
all Western Europe, set the Czarina free from 
her most watchful rivals. A Russian army 
invaded Poland, and the new Constitution 
was repealed. Prussian troops also entered 
Poland under the pretence of suppressing 
Jacobinism, and Russia again found herself 
frustrated, and concluded a Second Partition 
(1793) with Prussia, by which she received 
Lithuania, Volhynin, and Podolia. 

In 1795 the Polish nation rebelled, under 
the leadership of Xoscruscko, and this led to 
a Third Partition between Russia, Prussia, 
and Austria, and the former Power added 
1 8 1,000 square .miles, with 6,000,000 in- 
habitants, together with Curland, to her 
already vast dominions. 

By this last Partition a road of aggression 
was open towards Sweden on the north-west, 
and towards Turkey on the south. 

Many combined circumstances led Russia 
to assume an aggressive policy towards 
Turkey specially. Sweden, or rather Fin- 



io8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

land, was not of sufficient importance as a 
prey to the " northern bear " — a warmer 
climate was also wanted. Catherine had al- 
ready discovered the mistaken policy of Peter 
the Great, who had spent all his energy 
in getting the strongholds of the Baltic 
in opposition to Charles XII. of Sweden. 
Russian sway on the Baltic meant a direct 
opposition from two great sea Powers, viz., 
England and Holland, whose interests would 
suffer thereby. A striking proof of the 
opposition was seen in the case of the 
Northern War. 

The Partition of Poland produced another 
stray Power in the Baltic, to wit, Prussia. 

Previous to the Partition of Poland, 
Prussia Proper and her dominions, Branden- 
berg and Silesia, were separated, Poland 
being between them. The First Partition 
joined the Prussian kingdom to the main 
body of the Monarchy ; by the Second and 
Third Partitions Prussia obtained the then 
South Prussia and East Prussia, thereby 
uniting all into one compact body. 

Thus unconsciously a powerful Russian 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 109 

enemy was being formed in the Baltic. Thus 
Russia had three great enemies — England, 
Holland, and Prussia, joined by Sweden and 
Denmark, on the Baltic. 

Catherine had alreadyobtained a firm footing 
on the Black Sea coast, and was confident of 
her ability to occupy Constantinople and 
make it a Russian southern capital; the French 
Revolution attracting the attention of Western 
Europe, the Ottoman Empire was left at the 
mercy of Russia. Again a Russian occupa- 
tion would give a fine prospect of extending 
Russian authority into Danubian territory, 
Central Asia, and Asia Minor. 

So we may conclude that Catherine's 
annexation of Poland was only a step towards 
attaining her great aim, and gave her time to 
mature her plans. 

At this juncture Catherine died, and was 
succeeded by Paul (1796). He reversed his 
mother's policy by concluding an alliance 
with Turkey against Napoleon, seeing that 
the latter's policy was to destroy the Turkish 
Empire for the benefit of France. He 
changed his policy later, however, after his 



no JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

unsuccessful campaign in Holland, and threw 
himself into Napoleon's arms by establishing 
an armed neutrality in the north against Eng- 
land. 

Alexander I. (1801-1825). 

Catherine died (1796), but her plan did 
not perish with her. Alexander I. proved a 
faithful expounder of the late Czarina's 
schemes. 

His strong - handed policy was chiefly 
directed against Armenia and the Persian 
frontier, although the Danubian territory, 
Poland and Finland, did not escape his 
watchful eyes. Mingrelia and Imeretia were 
conquered in 1803, Shiroan in 1 805-1 806. 

At last Alexander's policy took a definite 
form at the Treaty of Tilsit (1807), for by 
the first provision " Russia was to take pos- 
session of Turkey in Europe, and push on 
her conquests in Asia as she thought proper." 
This secret treaty, which was made with 
Napoleon I., caused great uneasiness in 
England, and a coolness sprang up between 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 1 1 1 

the two Powers (i 807-1 812), although Eng- 
land had adhered to an Anglo-Russian 
Alliance during Chatham's administration, 
and Alexander joined the coalition of 1805. 

In 1809 Russia gained Finland, with the 
whole of East Bothnia and part of West 
Bothnia, as far as the River Tornea, by the 
Treaty of Friedrichsham. The Peace of 
Bucharest (181 2) was the result of Eng- 
land's mediation, by which Russia added 
Bessarabia, and the Pruth was made the 
boundary between Russia and Turkey, while 
Russia gave up Moldavia and Wallachia, 
which at that time were occupied by her. 

The quarrel between Russia and France 
concerning the " Continental System " l 

1 " Upon the Continental System he (Napoleon) had 
staked everything. He had united all Europe in the 
crusade against England ; no state, least of all such a 
state as Russia, could withdraw from the system with- 
out practically joining England. Nevertheless, we may 
wonder that, if he felt obliged to make war upon Russia, 
he should have chosen to wage it in the manner he did, 
by an overwhelming invasion" (Seeley's "A Short 
History of Napoleon the Great," p. 169). Prof. Seeley 
also told the author that " if the Continental System had 
existed a little longer England would have been ruined, 



ii2 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

brought about a French invasion of Russia 
by 678,000 men (181 2). But Russia coped 
successfully with her powerful foe. 

The Congress of Vienna (18 14-18 15) met 
to restore the balance of power and regulate 
the European relations, and also established 
the " Pentarchy of the Great Powers." Eight 
nations signed the Act of the Congress of 
Vienna, by which Russia was, generally 
speaking, the greatest gainer, for she received 
the greater part of the Grand Duchy of 
Warsaw. 

At the Congress of Vienna, Castlereagh 
(the English representative) evidently had in 
view three aims — (1) to prevent any revival of 
the Continental System ; (2) to protect Eng- 
lish communication with India; and (3) to 
maintain her supremacy in the Mediter- 
ranean. For the first aim, England obtained 
Heligoland, and the kingdom of the Nether- 
lands was formed, and " the surrender of Java 
was made to the Dutch by way of increasing 
the wealth and power of that kingdom, and so 

because it seems to me that a revolution would have 
taken place in England." 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 113 

helping to re-establish the due counterpoise 
to French power which nature has given to 
the possession of the Low Countries " ; for 
the second aim, England also obtained the 
possession of Cape Colony (from the Dutch) 
and the Mauritius (from France) to render 
safe the road to India ; and for the third 
aim, England retained Malta, and also the 
seven Ionian islands were brought under 
English protection. 

The Battle of Waterloo stamped out 
Napoleon's l ambitious schemes. French 
power and influence in Eastern Europe 
vanished with Napoleon, and from that time 
France has not fully recovered, and is there- 
fore unable to settle the Eastern Question 
for her benefit. The Napoleonic plan of 
occupying Constantinople has been stolen 
by Russia. 

1 " Napoleon's great mistake was that he had laid his 
plan for an invasion of England and a war in Europe at 
the same time " (Seeley's " A Short History of Napoleon 
the Great," p. 115). 



Ill, 



THE NEW EUROPEAN SYSTEM. 

The concert of the Great Powers ; its aims — // does not 
protect small states from its own members, e.g., 
Polish Revolution — How far can it solve the Turkish 
question ? 

Napoleon the Great fell at the Battle of 
Waterloo, 1815. The "concert of the Great 
Powers," the primary object of which is to 
avoid the recurrence of universal war in 
Europe, was first established at the Congress 
of Vienna in the same year. This new 
European System is, however, only applicable 
to the case of a small Power or Powers, but 
not to the Great Powers themselves. For 
instance, in the Schleswig-Holstein, as well 
as the Franco-Prussian War, none of the 
other Great Powers could interfere, and 
matters were entirely left to themselves. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 117 

But in the case of a lesser state or states 
becoming breaker of the peace, the Great 
Powers have never hesitated to step in and 
settle the difference according to their mutual 
agreement. We see good instance of it in 
the Independence of Belgium 

The " concert of the Great Powers " is 
actually a second phase of the Holy Alliance, 
and the new system has usually its object the 
protection of a smaller state against the 
larger. Greek Independence was a singular 
example of the new system. The revolt of 
Greece was entirely suppressed by the Sultan, 
and there was no hope of freeing themselves 
from the Turkish yoke. Though hardly 
justifiable, the Great Powers at last inter- 
fered, and made Greece an independent state. 
The Independence of Italy was another 
example. 

Thus we see that under the new system 
now prevalent in Europe, a smaller state at 
least attains her end. 

Let us examine the Polish Revolution 
against Russia. The Poles said, Let us 
revolt. We shall undoubtedly be beaten by 



uS JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Russia ; but we don't mind that at all, 
because we shall at last attain our own end 
through the interference of the Great Powers. 
There was every reason for the event turning 
out as they had calculated. Louis Napoleon 
was the first European sovereign who inter- 
fered in the Polish Revolution, and he invited 
England to join him. England, however, 
declined, owing to the difficulties of the situa- 
tion. France, from her isolation, failed in 
her desires, and Louis Napoleon lost his 
European confidence. Truly the fall of the 
French Empire began from that date. 

This Polish Revolution disclosed another 
characteristic of the new European System. 
In the event of either country concerned 
being one of the Great Powers, the system 
is of no effect at all. The late dispute 
between England and Portugal comes under 
this heading. 

One more interesting question needs in- 
vestigation. How far this new European 
System is applicable to the question of 
Turkey, a country which may be placed 
among the first-class Powers, and where 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 119 

Christian inhabitants are in an inferior 
position to the Turkish Mahomedans. This 
is what I have to discuss in the following 
five chapters. 



IV. 

GREEK INDEPENDENCE. 

The Holy Alliance — The Greek insurrection — Interference 
of the Three Powers — Battle of Navarino — Treaty of 
Adrianople — The policy of Nicholas I. ; Treaty of 
Unkiar Ikelessi— Turkey only saved by English and 
French aid — Palmerstoji succeeds to Canning s policy. 

Alexander I.,. Emperor of Russia ; Francis, 
Emperor of Austria; and William I., King 
of Prussia, formed what was known as the 
Holy Alliance, the first-named being the 
chief instigator. 

Its aim was to promote peace and good- 
will among European nations, based upon 
Christianity, although it seemed quite liable 
to be abused for the benefit of absolute 
monarchy, as in the case of Spain. Nearly 
all the European Powers joined it, England * 

1 The Prince Regent declared his personal adherence 
to its principles. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 121 

being the only one who declined. England's 
argument was that " such interference is in- 
consistent with the fundamental laws of 
Great Britain. It must lead to a system 
of continual interference incompatible with 
European interests and the independence of 
nations." * However, we are forced to admit 
and acknowledge that the present system 
of Europe is conducted on the same lines, 
slightly modified, as the Holy Alliance. 

At the end of the eighteenth century the 
songs of the poet Rhegus and the revolu- 
tionary influence of France (1789) stirred up 
the Greeks to feelings of hatred against the 
Porte. 

In 1 82 1 the Danubian Provinces (Rou- 
mania), under the leadership of Hypisilands, 
rose in rebellion, trusting to receiving as- 
sistance from Alexander I., the instigator of 
the Holy Alliance. But their hopes were 
shattered, and Turkey soon crushed the 
revolt. This was the only case in which 
Russia did not interfere with Turkey in the 
Danubian question. 

1 Lord Castlereagh's Speech, 181 2. 



122 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

A little reflection, however, will show the 
cause of the Russian non-interference in this 
case. Alexander's power and influence were 
declining, and Russia was filled internally 
with discontent. Secret societies flourished 
everywhere, and the Czar dreaded a revolu- 
tion in his own country if he gave help to 
the Danubian Provinces, which would be 
approving a rebellion against a legitimate 
sovereign. 

The Greek rising in the Morea was 
answered by a counter Turkish massacre of 
Greeks in most of the principal cities of 
Turkey, and Gregory, the head of the Greek 
Church at Constantinople, was executed. 
This caused great indignation in the Russias 
and war appeared imminent, but owing to the 
mediation of England and Austria it was 
averted. 

There is no doubt that Russia felt that it 
w r as to her advantage to assist a revolutionary 
movement, in order that she might secure as 
much influence in Turkey as possible. But 
Austrian interest in the Balkans was of vital 
importance. Her policy was naturally to 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 123 

oppose Russia in her desires, in order to keep 
the Turkish honour unstained and use her as 
a bulwark against Russia. 

However, great enthusiasm was aroused, 
not only in England, but also in Germany 
and Switzerland. 

Lord Byron died, 1 and Shelley wrote for 
the Greek cause. Lord Cochrane and Sir 
Richard Church fought, while the German 
poet, M tiller, and the Swiss Eynard, warmly 
upheld the cause of the oppressed Greeks. 

Notwithstanding this help, the Greeks 
were far from fortunate, and the Sultan, with 
the help of the Egyptians, captured Athens. 
But their brave defence of Missolonghi 
aroused the sympathies of the European 
Powers. 

Nicholas I. (1825-1855). 

On the death of Alexander I. the Holy 
Alliance vanished (1825), and Nicholas I. 
ascended the throne (1 825-1 855). Now the 

1 He was " engaged in the glorious attempt to restore 
that country to her ancient freedom and renown " (The 
Epitaph in the Church near Nevvstead). 



124 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Greeks appealed to England for help, and 
Canning l saw that it was the best policy for 
England to assist Greece in order to control 
the ambitious plans of Russia. Accordingly 
he sent the Duke of Wellington as the 
English representative, and a protocol was 
signed at St. Petersburg by which Greece 
was to remain tributary to the Sultan, but to 
be independent as regards commercial rela- 
tions. This protocol developed into the 
Treaty of London, between England, France, 
and Russia, by which the three Powers bound 
themselves to act as mediators in the 
Eastern question. The mediation of the 
Powers was rejected by the Porte, but 
accepted by the Greeks. The result was 
that the Turko- Egyptian fleet was totally 
destroyed at the Battle of Navarino by the 

1 " In the present state of European politics there 
seems to be in the East a sort of vacuum, which it is 
advisable to supply, in order to counterbalance the 
preponderance of the North. ... If anything like an 
equilibrium is to be upheld, Greece must be supported. 
Mr. Canning, I think, understands this, and intends to 
behave towards Greece " (R. C. Jebb's " Modern 
Greece," pp. 178-179). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 125 

allies, and the Sultan retreated from the 
Morea. Canning's death in 1827 gave Eng- 
land an opportunity of retiring from active 
participation in the alliance, especially as she 
regarded the Battle of Navarino as an 
" untoward event," so Russia and Turkey 
were left alone in conflict. 

This, in my opinion, was a half hearted 
policy on the part of England, although the 
Cabinet at that time could do no other, 
because their tenets would not allow them to 
help a revolutionary people against a country 
governed by a legitimate sovereignty. 

Now had the long-wished-for opportunity 
arrived for Russia to carry into effect on 
Turkey her long-cherished designs. Diebitch, 
a Russian general, crossed the Balkans, and 
soon captured Adrianople ; while Paskevitch 
took Kars and Erzeroom in Asia. 

These successes resulted in the Treaty of 
Adrianople (1829), between Russia and Tur- 
key. By the treaty 1 Russia gave back almost 

1 This disadvantageous treaty for Russia was made 
owing to the disappearance of immense numbers of 
soldiers. 



126 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

all her conquests to Turkey, only retaining 
the ports of Anapa and Poti, on the eastern 
coast of the Black Sea, and the Protectorate 
powers of the Czar over the Danubian 
Principalities were confirmed and extended. 
In return Turkey acquiesced in all the 
provisions of the London Conference. 

This made Greece practically an indepen- 
dent state. 

Nicholas pursued the policy of Alexander 
I. with regard to the Asiatic boundaries, and 
successfully carried on a war with Persia 
from 1826 to 1828 which was terminated by 
the Treaty of Turkmantchai (1828), Russia 
receiving the provinces of Erivan and 
Nakhitcheven. This was the period of the 
expansion of Russia, and the first appearance 
of Russia as a real rival of Great Britain. 

Reviewing the general policy of Nicholas 
the reader cannot help being struck with the 
skilful manner and clever system by which 
the Czar carried out his plans. 

Before his reign the Russian attacks were 
all made particularly in the south-west and 
south-east direction, viz., the Danubian 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 127 

territory, and Armenia ; but on his accession 
he began to attack from a more southerly 
direction even than Turkey, viz., Greece, 
whom he assisted in rebellion against her 
Turkish oppressors. From 1 826-1 828 he 
attacked in a south-easterly quarter, viz., 
Armenia and Persia, at the same time 
occupying Adrianople and threatening Con- 
stantinople. Finally, to complete his plans, 
he struck a fatal blow at the heart of Turkey, 
viz., its capital, Constantinople, in 1S33, with 
the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, by which 
Turkey was practically made a vassal of 
Russia. 

This treaty exercised a sreat influence 
upon foreign powers. For Russia by it 
would have obtained actual possession notonly 
of the Black Sea but also of its only entrance, 
the Dardanelles, which thus would have 
become a fortified Russian outpost. 

Turkey now was in a very precarious state. 
She was almost past the aid of' any earthly 
powers. But luckily two doctors stepped 
into the breach, namely, England and France, 
and, after a course of treatment, the following 



128 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

protocol was indited by the Pentarchy of 
Powers : " That ships of war have at all 
times been prohibited from entering the 
Channel of Constantinople, viz., by the 
Straits of the Dardanelles and of the Black 
Sea." 

Reshid Pacha had performed for Turkey 
great internal reforms, but, unfortunately, he 
was exiled through a Court intrigue. This 
proved a great blow to Turkish politics. 

Thus Turkey began to decline again ; and, 
as John Bright said in an able speech at 
Manchester (1854), ''Turkey is a decaying 
nation ; " and Cobden on the same occasion 
said, " Turkey is a decaying country, and the 
Turks cannot be permanently maintained as 
a ruling Power in Europe." The Czar 
himself said that " a sick man is dying," 
referring to Turkey, in his remarkable con- 
versation with Sir Hamilton Seymour on 
January 28, 1853. 

When Turkey appeared at her last gasp 
she had been saved by England and France, 
Now, for the second time, the same Powers 
rescued her from annihilation. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 129 

England a short time previously had been 
in a feeble state owing to her severe war with 
Napoleon the Great. This had exhausted 
her financially to a great extent. 1 

However, Huskisson's commercial policy 
(1823), Wellington's Catholic Emancipation 
(1829), Russell's great Reform Bill (1832), 
and the Repeal of the Corn Laws by Sir 
Robert Peel (1846), had exercised a re- 
freshing influence upon her general pros- 
perity. 

Here Lord Palmerston, a disciple 2 of 

1 " The pressure of the heavy taxation and of the 
debts, which now reached eight hundred millions, was 
embittered by the general distress of the country " 
(J. R. Green's " A Short History of the English People," 
p. 812). 

2 " Our ultimate object is the peace of the world ; but- 
let it not be said that we cultivate peace either because 
we fear or because we are not prepared for war. The 
resources created by peace are the means of war. In 
cherishing these resources we but accumulate those 
means. Our present repose is no more a proof of our 
inability to act than the state of inertness and inactivity 
in which I have seen those mighty masses that float in 
the waters above your town is a proof they are devoid of 
strength and incapable of being fitted for action. You 
well know how one of those stupendous masses now 

9 



ISO JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Canning, appeared on the scene to play his 
part in " the European concert." 

reposing on their shadow in perfect stillness, how soon, 
upon any call of patriotism or necessity, it would assume 
the likeness of an animated thing, instinct with life and 
motion ; how soon it would ruffle, as it were, its swelling 
plumage ; how quickly it would put forth all its beauty 
and its bravery, collect its scattered elements of strength, 
and awake its dormant thunders. Such as is one of these 
magnificent machines when springing from inaction into 
a display of its strength, such is England herself, while 
apparently passive and motionless she silently causes 
power to be put forth on an adequate occasion " 
(Canning's speech at Plymouth, August, 1823). 



V. 

THE CRIMEAN WAR. 

Nicholas I. alie?iates France from England by the 
Egyptian quest 'ion — Mehemet Alt and Palmerston's 
convention against him — Nicholas I. in England — 
The Protectorate of the Holy Land; breach between 
Russia a?id France — Proposed partition of Turkey — 
War of Russia and Turkey — The Vienna Note — 
Intervention of France and England to save Turkey 
— Treaty oj Paris; Russia foiled — Correspondence 
between Palmers ton and Aberdeeti as to the declara- 
tion of war — National feeling of England secures the 
former's triumph — French motives i?i joi?iing in the 
war. 

Although Turkey was unable to withstand 
Russia alone, yet, with the help of England 
and France, she was able to prevent the 
Russian inroad, on the south. 

Nicholas, ever crafty, now turned his 
attention to fostering the minor disputes 
which still existed between England and 
France. 



132 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Being envious of the English naval 
supremacy in the Mediterranean, France 
resumed her traditional policy of obtaining 
influence in Egypt, in order to be able to 
have a stronghold there against English 
power, and succeeded in making Egypt a 
faithful ally. 

England, on the other hand, clung to the 
alliance with Turkey, and assisted the Sultan 
in quelling the rebellion of Mehemet Ali. 

Thus we see there existed a difference 
between the two Powers, notwithstanding that 
Russia was a common rival of both. 

Nicholas used this difference as a tool to 
weaken the allies against his own country. 

In 1S39 Mehemet Ali, with the silent ap- 
proval of Russia, determined to become an 
independent monarch. 

Thiers, a minister of Louis Phillipe, in 
helping Mehemet Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, 
had fallen into a Russian trap, although he 
believed and hoped that he was following the 
traditional policy of Napoleon the Great. 
This proved, however, a mistaken policy ; 
for it was the general European feeling that 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 133 

if war resulted the Egyptians would be 
victorious, Constantinople would be in 
danger; the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi would 
come into force, the Russians would rush to 
help the Porte, while the Anglo-French fleets 
would be barred from the Dardanelles. 

Lord Palmerston saw that the united 
action of the five Great Powers might settle 
the Eastern Question and destroy the 
influence of Russia, which seemed to be too 
arbitrarily strong. His idea was that a 
Conference should be held by the five Great 
Powers, and this was approved of by 
all. 

There was no doubt that the Conference 
was not as unanimous as could be wished, and 
certainly England did not agree with France 
on several points. 

At length Palmerston made a convention 
with three of the Powers for an armed 
interference in the Eastern Question. France 
was left alone. And Palmerston determined 
to pursue the above-mentioned policy. 

Admiral Stopford captured Bey rout, and 
Sir Charles Napier bombarded Acre. The 



i 3 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

fall of the fortress of Acre — which was thought 
to be impregnable — before the English fleet, 
terminated the war, and Mehemet Ali became 
only an hereditary ruler over Egypt under 
the over-lord of the Porte. 

The breach between England and France 
having become serious, Russia having obtained 
her desires stationed her fleet at Sebastopol, 
where it remained quiescent during the 
English bombardment of Acre. 

Thus, although Lord Palmerston succeeded 
in crushing the French Minister's scheme, 
yet he fell into the snare laid for him by 
Russia, viz., of bringing about a diplomatic 
disagreement between England and France. 

But Russia did not gain by the transaction, 
for she in her turn lost her single-handed 
power over Turkey, which was given into 
the hands of the Five Powers. 

Lord Palmerston offered the following 
condition to the Turkish Government. 
" England having, in conjunction with other 
Christian Powers, succeeded in restoring 
Syria to the Sultan, she is entitled to expect 
that the Sultan, in return for such assistance, 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 135 

should secure his Christian subjects from 
oppression." l 

At last the Syrian affairs were settled, but 
still England was always dreading a French 
attack both on Egypt and Syria. 

In 1844 the Emperor Nicholas paid his 
famous visit to England. What was his 
object in coming to England at such a period? 
The only idea that I can put forward is, that 
he wanted to see to what extent the Anglo- 
French disagreement 2 with regard to Syrian 

1 Holland's " European Concert on the Eastern 
Question," p. 206. 

2 " The growth of intimate relations between England 
and that country France ..." was manifestly viewed by 
him with jealous distrust, calculated as it was to affect 
most seriously any designs which might be entertained 
at St. Petersburg for enlarging Russian territory at the 
expense of Turkey. To detach England from this 
alliance would naturally be regarded by the Czar as a 
master-stroke of policy, and the recent conduct of France 
in the Eastern Question may have seemed to furnish an 
opening for making the attempt. If, however, as 
currently believed at the time, one main object of his 
visit was to ascertain for himself whether this was possible, 
he must soon have been satisfied to the contrary by the 
very decided language with which Sir Robert Peel 
received his suggestions as to the probably selfish action 
of France, in the event of the affairs of Turkey coming 



136 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

affairs had reached ; also to widen them as 
much as possible in order to make it im- 
possible to form an Anglo-French alliance 
against him, and thus leave him a free hand 
in the settlement of the Eastern Question 
when the fall of Turkey should take place. 

Nicholas was at once informed, after his 
arrival, by the British Prime Minister, ''that 
no foreign influence in Egypt would be 
allowed by the British Government, who 
desired to keep the way open to India." He 
at once perceived that the English were 
fearful of the French historic Napoleonic 
plans ; and he at once used this fear to his 
advantage. 

He first proposed a partition of Turkey, 
knowing that the English Government would 
not dare to agree to it, because it would hurt 
the national feeling of England. Soon after 
the Anti-Napoleonic Revolution was over 
the Holy Alliance was concluded between 
several European Courts, and the moral 
feelings in the western states of Europe were 

to a crisis " (Sir T. Martyn's " Life of the Prince 
Consort," vol i. p. 216). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 137 

to defend the weak against the strong, and 
to resist unjust aggression. These feelings 
were clearly shown during the Russian 
oppression of Poland (1837), and in the 
Independence of Greece (1821-1829). 

In England these feelings had manifested 
themselves, and any English Government 
which should venture to shock them would 
have been certainly upset. Therefore, a 
proposed partition of Turkey by Russia was 
received by the English Government with 
decided disfavour. 

Then the Czar proposed that the guardian- 
ship of the Holy Land should be entrusted to 
Russia. This was his ^reat aim, and was his 
principal object. 

England found herself in a dilemma. 
What was she to do ? She had already 
refused the Czar's first proposal, and she felt 
obliged to accept the second. " The three 
representatives of the Conservative party, 
namely, the Duke of Wellington, Sir Robert 
Peel, and Lord Aberdeen, met the Czar and 
signed a secret memorandum, promising to 
exert their personal influence on behalf of the 



i 3 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Greeks as opposed to the Latin Chinch at 
Jerusalem, and so practically to forward 
Russian claims to the guardianship of the 
Holy Places, as opposed to those of France, 
who was to be ignored in the matter. This 
memorandum, to a certain extent favouring 
Russia's claim to a protectorate of the Greek 
Church, was never placed in the Foreign 
Office archives, but was forwarded in suc- 
cession from one English Foreign Secretary to 
another, until, as we shall show, poor Lord 
Aberdeen (Wellington and Peel being dead) 
was called on for his pound of flesh in 

1853-" : 

Thus Nicholas attained the end he had in 
view, and left England, well pleased with the 
brilliant reception he had met with. " The 
Greek and the Catholic Church," Lord 
Palmerston had written to Canning, 1849, 
" are merely other names for Russian and 
French influence." 

France at once perceived that the Czar's 
visit to England was connected with some 

1 Thornton's " Foreign Secretaries of the Nine- 
teenth Century," vol iii. p. 100. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 139 

secret arrangement to the prejudice of French 
interests, and felt highly indignant. 

France did not lose any time, and 
commenced plans to overturn Russian in- 
fluence in the Holy Land. Russia resented 
this, thinking that France would be her only 
enemy. The Holy Land dispute soon became 
general. 

The Turkish compromise did not please 
Russia and France. " Suddenly, the French 
ambassador at Constantinople, M. de Lava- 
lette, was instructed to demand that the 
grants l to the Latin Church should be 
strictly executed in the Holy Land." 2 

In 1852 Lord Aberdeen was made the 
British Prime Minister, and "the Emperor 
Nicholas heard the tidings of Lord Aberdeen's 
elevation to a premiership with a delight he 
did not suppress." 3 

Nicholas thought that now an alliance 

1 In 1840 France succeeded in obtaining from the 
Porte a grant of distinguished privileges in regard to the 
Holy Land. 

2 Ashley's "Life of Lord Palmerston," vol. i. p. 279. 

3 Kinglake's "History of Crimean War," vol. i. 
p. 82. 



140 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

between England and France was impossible, 1 
and at the same time, seeing that Prussia 
and Austria were neutral, determined to 
obtain " the key of the Black Sea." 2 

However, he wanted to ascertain whether 
England would keep her secret engagement 

1 Baron Brunnon, the Russian Minister, said to Count 
Vitzthum, " he knew that his Emperor (Nicholas), relying 
on Lord Aberdeen's well-known love of peace, and on 
the protocol which had been signed by Aberdeen in 
1844 under entirely different circumstances, regarded 
two things impossible : first, that England should 
declare war against Russia ; and secondly, that she 
should conclude an alliance against Russia with France '' 
(Count Vitzthum's " St. Petersburg and London," vol i. 
p. 66). 

2 " Men dwelling amidst the snows of Russia are 
driven by very nature to grow covetous when they 
hear of the happier lands where all the year round there 
are roses and long sunny days. And since this people 
have a seaboard and ports on the Euxine, they are forced 
by an everlasting policy to desire the command of the 
straits which lead through the heart of an empire into 
the midst of that world of which men kindle thoughts 
when they speak of the /Egean and of Greece, and the 
Ionian shores, and of Palestine and Egypt, and of Italy, 
and of France, and of Spain, and the land of the Moors, 
and of the Atlantic beyond, and the path of ships on the 
ocean " (Kinglake's " Invasion of the Crimea,"' vol. i. 
P. 54). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 141 

to come to a separate understanding with 
him. He again proposed a partition of 
Turkey, on January 28, 1853, at the same time 
making use of the curious expression to Sir 
Hamilton Seymour that " a sick man is 
dying," and that his (the sick man's) 
property should be divided according to 
agreement between England and Russia. 
Nicholas' idea was (a) that Servia, Bosnia, 
Bulgaria, and the other principalities of the 
Danube, should become independent states 
under Russian protection, and (b) that he 
would " have no objection to offer," to the 
occupation of Egypt and Candia by England 
" in the event of a distribution of the 
Ottoman Succession upon the fall of the 
Empire," (c) that Constantinople should 
never be held by the English or French, or 
any other great nation, and Greece should 
not strengthen herself " so as to become a 
powerful state," and (e) that Russia should 
occupy Constantinople provisionally, not "as 
a proprietor, of course, but as a trustee." 

" In answer to these overtures," Kinglake 
says, " the Government of the Queen dis- 



i 4 2 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

claimed all notion of aiming at the possession 
of either Constantinople or any other of 
the Sultan's possessions, and accepted the 
assurances to the like effect which were given 
by the Czar. It combated the opinion that 
the extinction of the Ottoman Empire was 
near at hand, and deprecated the discussions 
based on that supposition as tending directly 
to produce the very result against which they 
w r ere meant to provide." l 

Then the Czar sent Prince Menschikoff to 
Constantinople, and entrusted to him the two 
following missions : viz., [a) to set forth a 
Russian claim on the Holy Places, and (6) 
that all orthodox Christians, who were 
subjects of Turkey, should be placed under 
the immediate protectorate of Russia. 

The above second mission was planned by 
Russia owing to her deep sympathy with the 
Sclavonic races, who had adhered to the same 
religion although they were still under 
Turkish rule. But this bond was rapidly 
getting weaker, and the Christian inhabitants 

1 Kinglake's "Invasion of the Crimea," vol. i. p. 90. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 143 

were determined to throw off, if possible, the 
Mahomedan yoke. 

But the second demand of Russia, to my 
mind, was an unjust claim, because it would 
have considerably affected the independence 
or dignity of the Sultan. 1 

The English Ambassador in Turkey, Lord 
Stratford de Redcliffe, a great opponent of 
Russia, advised the Porte to stand firm and 
resist to the utmost the second demand. 2 He 
and Lord Clarendon (the English Foreign 
Secretary), however, tried to persuade the 
Porte to agree to the first demand, but the 
Porte, with decided firmness, declined to 
accept this advice. 

1 The Grand Vizier said the mission was meant "to 
win some important right from Turkey, which would 
destroy her independence, and that the Czar's object was 
to trample under foot the rights of the Porte and the 
independence of the Sovereign " (Kinglake's " Invasion 
of the Crimea," vol. i. p. 99). 

2 " That the Sultan's promise to protect his Christian 
subjects in the free exercise of their religion differed 
extremely from a right conferred on any foreign Power to 
enforce that protection, and also the same degree of 
interference might be dangerous to the Porte when 
exercised by so powerful an empire as Russia, on behalf 
of ten millions of Greeks " (Lord Stratford's view). 



i 4 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

This was followed, on May 21, 1853, by the 
departure of Prince Menschikoff from Con- 
stantinople, with the threat that " he had come 
in his great coat, but would return in his uni- 
form." Russia then crossed the Pruth on July 
2nd, and occupied the Danubian Principalities 
as a preliminary to her demands. On the 
same day of the Russian invasion the repre- 
sentatives of the Great Powers assembled at 
Vienna. This Congress drew up what is 
known as the "Vienna Note." Russia ac- 
ceded to the terms contained in the Note, 
but the Porte refused, and offered certain 
amendments. The Powers after a time 
accepted them, and forwarded them to Russia, 
who, however, rejected them. 1 The Con- 
ference then dissolved. 

In October, 1853, the Porte declared war 
on Russia ; and the destruction of the 

1 " When the Emperor gave his reasons for rejecting 
the modifications we found that he interpreted the Note 
in a manner quite different from ourselves, and in a great 
degree justified the objections of Turks. We could not 
therefore honestly continue to give an interpretation to 
the Note, and ask the Turks again to sign it, when we 
knew that the interpretation of the Emperor is entirely 
different" (Lord Sheridan's letter to Earl Russel, Sept. 
22, 1853). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 145 

Turkish fleet at Sinope sealed the Russian 
acquiescence to the declaration. 

England and France allied themselves with 
Turkey against Russia, and declared war on 
March 28, 1854. 

The siege of Sebastopol lasted for nearly 
a year, and its fall was followed by the Con- 
gress of Paris. 1 The plenipotentaries of 

1 " I thought the Emperor Alexander had shown con- 
siderable moral courage in making peace after the 
Crimean War, contrary to the general feeling in Russia, 

and Prince D gave me the following curious details 

of what occurred on that occasion, which he said had 
been related to him by one of the Ministers present : — 
The Emperor called a Council of War at St. Petersburg, 
which was composed of the following members : Prince 
Dolgorouky, Minister of War; the Grand Duke Con- 
stantine, Minister of Marine : M. de Broek, Minister of 
Finance ; Count Blondoff, Prince Moronzow, and, I 
think, M. Lapouchine, Minister of the Interior. The 
Emperor first called on the Minister of War to report on 
the state of the army, and he said the resources were 
exhausted, that more recruiting was almost impossible, 
and that he did not see how the war could be continued. 
The Emperor next addressed himself to his brother, 
who, together with Count Blondoff, was in favour of con- 
tinuing hostilities at all risks. The Emperor asked what 
was the state of the navy ? The Grand Duke answered, 
' Sire, we have a fleet in the Baltic, and another in the 
Black Sea. ; The Emperor acquiesced, but added, 

IO 



i 4 6 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

France, England, Russia, Turkey, Sardinia, 
Austria, and at last Prussia, assembled at 
Paris (February, 1856), and the " Treaty of 
Paris" was signed, by which the following 
matters were settled : — 

1. The Great Powers " declare the Sub- 
lime Porte admitted to participate in the 

' True ; but those fleets have never left our harbours. 
Are they fit to oppose the English and French fleets ? ' 
The Grand Duke was obliged to reply in the negative. 
' Then,' said the Emperor, ' it appears we have no army 
and no fleet ? ' The Grand Duke sighed, looked down, 
but made no answer. The Emperor next addressed the 
Minister of Finance, and asked what report he could 
give. He said, 'Sire, we have just made one disadvan- 
tageous loan, upon conditions imposed upon us at Ham- 
burg, and I believe another to be impossible.' The 
Emperor then addressed the Council, and said, 'Gentle- 
men, it appears from what we have just heard that we 
have neither army, navy, nor money ; how, then, is it 
possible for me to continue the war ? ' Count Blondoff 
then stepped forward and said, with deep emotion, 
' Sire, after the report we have just heard, it is clear that 
your Majesty is forced to make peace, but at the same 
time you must dismiss your incompetent Ministers, who 
have not known how to serve either your father or your- 
self — dismiss us all.' The consternation of the other 
members of the Council at this outburst was great, but 
peace was signed forthwith" (Lady Bloomfield's "Court 
and Diplomatic Life "). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 147 

advantages of the public law and system 
(concert) of Europe. Their Majesties en- 
gage, each on his part, to respect the inde- 
pendence and the territorial integrity of the 
Ottoman Empire ; guarantee in common the 
strict observance of that engagement ; and 
will, in consequence, consider any act tending 
to its violation as a question of general 
interest " (Art. VII.). 

2. " The Black Sea is neutralized ; its 
waters and its ports thrown open to the 
mercantile marine of every nation, are form- 
ally and in perpetuity interdicted to the flag 
of war, either of the Powers possessing its 
coasts, or of any other Power " (Art. XL), 
and, " The Black Sea beincr neutralized 
according to the terms of Article XL, the 
maintenance or establishment upon its coast 
of military maritime arsenals becomes alike 
unnecessary and purposeless; in consequence, 
His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, 
and His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, engage 
not to establish or to maintain upon that 
coast any military maritime arsenal " (Art. 
XIII.). 



148 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

The docks and fortifications at Sebastopol 
were destroyed by the Western Powers ; but 
it was allowed that Russia and the Porte 
should keep up " the number of light vessels 
necessary for the service of the coast" (Art. 
XIV.), and merchant ships of all kinds were 
allowed freely to enter it. 

3. All control over the mouth of the 
Danube was taken from Russia and entrusted 
to the authority of the Riverain Commission 
(Art. XVII.). "A Commission shall be 
established, and shall be composed of dele- 
gates of Austria, Bavaria, the Sublime Porte, 
and Wiirtemburg (one for each of those 
Powers), to whom shall be added commis- 
sioners from the three Danubian Principali- 
ties, whose nomination shall have been 
approved by the Porte. This Commission, 
which shall be permanent: (1) Shall prepare 
regulations of navigation and river police ; 
(2) Shall remove the impediments, of what- 
ever nature they may be, which still prevent 
the application to the Danube of the arrange- 
ments of the Treaty of Vienna ; (3) Shall 
order and cause to be executed the necessary 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 149 

works throughout the whole course of the 
river ; (4) Shall, after the dissolution of the 
European Commission, see to maintaining 
the mouths of the Danube and the neigh- 
bouring parts of the sea in a navigable state " 
(Art. XVII.). 

4. A portion of Bessarabia on the left bank 
of the Danube was ceded by Russia in order 
to make the Turkish defence against Russia 
more easy, and more fully to secure the 
freedom of the navigation of the Danube 
(Art. XX.). 

There is no doubt Russia was beaten by 
the combined alliance against her. She had 
entirely overreached herself and miscalcu- 
lated the temper of the other Powers. She 
had thought that an Anglo-French alliance 
was impossible, and that Prussia and Austria 
would have remained neutral. Prussia indeed 
did maintain a neutrality at the commence- 
ment of the war, and the King of Prussia 
himself said, " I am resolved to maintain a 
position of complete neutrality, and to this 
I add with proud elevation that my people 



i 5 o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

and myself are of one mind. They require 
absolute neutrality from me." 

Austria, however, only maintained a con- 
ditional neutrality. The Austrian Emperor, 
in replying to the Russian Ambassador, Count 
Orloff, said, " Then must Austria be equally 
free to act as her interest and dignity may 
direct," if Russia was to cross the Danube, 
or seek to occupy fresh territory, or not 
evacuate the Principalities when the war was 
over. 

Later on both Prussia and Austria formed 
a defensive alliance against Russia, and with 
the consent of the Porte, the Principalities 
were provisionally occupied by Austria. 

In England Lord Aberdeen did his utmost 
to bring about a peace between Russia and 
Turkey, but it was a hopeless task. Lord 
Palmerston, on the other hand, described 
the aggressive policy of Russia as follows : — 

" The policy and practice of the Russian 
Government has always been to push forward 
its encroachments as fast and as far as the 
apathy or want of firmness of other Govern- 
ments would allow it to go, but always to 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 151 

stop and retire when it was met with decided 
resistance, and then to wait for the next 
favourable opportunity to make another 
spring on its intended victim. In further- 
ance of this policy, the Russian Government 
has always had two strings to its bow — 
moderate language and disinterested pro- 
fessions at Petersburg and at London ; active 
aggression by its agents on the scene of 
operations. If the aggressions succeed 
locally, the St. Petersburg Government adopts 
them as a fait accompli which it did not 
intend, but cannot, in honour, recede from. 
If the local agents fail, they are disavowed 
and recalled, and the language previously 
held is appealed to as a proof that the agents 
have overstepped their instructions. This 
was exemplified in the treaty of Unkiar- 
Skelessi, and in the exploits of Simonivitch 
and Vikovitch in Persia." : And Lord Palmer- 
ston wrote as follows to Lord Aberdeen 
(July 4, 1853), when the combined fleets of 
England and France were at Besika Bay : — 
"In the meantime, however, I hope you will 
1 A letter to Lord Clarendon, May 22, 1853. 



1 52 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

allow the squadrons to be ordered to go up 
to the Bosphorus as soon as it is known 
at Constantinople that the Russians have 
entered the Principalities, and to be further 
at liberty to go into the Black Sea, if 
necessary or useful for the protection of 
Turkish territory. The advantages of such 
a course seem to be — 

" First. That it would encourage and assist 
the Turks in those defensive arrangements 
and organizations which the present crisis 
may give the Turkish Government facilities 
for making, and the benefit of which, in 
strengthening" Turkey against attack, will 
continue after the crisis is over. 

"Secondly. It would essentially tend to pre- 
vent any further inroad on Turkish territory 
in Europe or in Asia, and it is manifest that 
any such further inroad would much increase 
the difficulties of a settlement. 

"Thirdly. It would act as a wholesome 
check upon the Emperor and his advisers, 
and would stimulate Austria and Prussia to 
increased exertions to bring the Russian 
Government to reason. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 15? 

" Fourthly. It would relieve England and 
France from the disagreeable, and not very 
creditable, position of waiting without ven- 
turing to enter the back door as friends, while 
the Russians have taken forcible possession 
of the front hall as enemies. 

"If these orders are to be given, I would 
suggest that it is very important that they 
should be given without delay, so that we 
may be able, when these matters are discussed 
this week in Parliament, to say that such 
orders have been sent off. Of course they 
would at the same time be communicated to 
the Russian Government." 

But the Premier did not a^ree with 
Palmerston's views. 

The combined fleets, at the request of the 
Sultan, passed up to Constantinople (October 
7, 1853). Palmerston then made two propo- 
sitions to the Cabinet : — 

" First. That instructions should be sent 
to Constantinople that, in the event of war 
having been declared, the two squadrons 
should enter the Black Sea, and should send 
word to the Russian admiral at Sebastopol 



154 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

that, in the existing state of things, any 
Russian ship of war found cruising in the 
Black Sea would be detained, and be given 
over to the Turkish Government. 

" Secondly. That England and France 
should propose to the Sultan to conclude a 
convention to the effect that, whereas war has 
unfortunately broken out between Russia and 
Turkey, in consequence of differences created 
by unjust demands made upon Turkey by 
Russia, and by unwarrantable invasion of the 
Turkish territory by a Russian army ; and 
whereas it is deemed by England and France 
to be an object of general European interest, 
and of special importance to them that the 
political independence and the territorial 
integrity of the Ottoman Empire should be 
maintained inviolate against Russian aggres- 
sion, the two Powers engage to furnish to the 
Sultan such naval assistance as may be 
necessary in existing circumstances for the 
defence of his empire ; and they moreover 
engage to permit any of their respective 
subjects who may be willing to do so, to enter 
the military or naval service of the Sultan. 



THE EA S TERN Q UESTION. 1 5 5 

In return, the Sultan is to engage that he will 
consult with England and France as to the 
terms and conditions of the new treaty which 
is to determine, on the conclusion of hos- 
tilities, the future relations of Russia and 
Turkey." 

But Lord Aberdeen in reply said : — 

" I cannot say that I think the present 
state of the Russo-Turkish question would 
authorize such a proceeding on our part as 
that which you intend to propose." 

On November 1, 1853, Palmerston again 
said in concluding another letter to Lord 
Aberdeen : — 

" It seems to me, then, that our course is 
plain, simple, and straight. That we must 
help Turkey out of her difficulties by 
negotiation, if possible ; and that if negotia- 
tion fails, we must, by force of arms, carry 
her safely through her dangers." 

After the destruction of the Turkish fleet 
at Sinope, Palmerston wrote to Aberdeen as 
follows : — 

" Will you allow me this opportunity of 
repeating in writing what I have more than 



156 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

once said verbally, on the state of things 
between Russia and Turkey ? It appears to 
me that we have two objects in view : the 
one to put an end to the present war between 
these two Powers ; the other to prevent, as 
far as diplomatic arrangements can do so, a 
recurrence of similar differences, and renewed 
dangers to the peace of Europe. 

" Now it seems to me that, unless Turkey 
shall be laid prostrate at the feet of Russia 
by the disasters of the war — an event which 
England and France could not without 
dishonour permit — no peace can be con- 
cluded between the contending parties unless 
the Emperor consents to evacuate the Princi- 
palities, to abandon his demands, and to 
renounce some of the embarrassing stipula- 
tions of former treaties upon which -he has 
founded the pretensions which have been the 
cause of existing difficulties. 

" To bring the Emperor to agree to this, 
it is necessary to exert a considerable 
pressure upon him ; and the quarter in which 
that pressure can at present be most easily 
brought to bear is the Black Sea and the 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 157 

countries bordering upon it. In the Black 
Sea, the combined English, French, and 
Turkish squadrons are indisputably superior 
to the Russian Meet, and are able to give the 
law to that fleet. What I would strongly 
recommend, therefore, is that which I pro- 
posed some months ago to the Cabinet, 
namely, that the Russian Government and 
the Russian admiral at Sebastopol should be 
informed that so long as Russian troops 
occupy the Principalities, or hold a position 
in any other part of the Turkish territory, no 
Russian ships of war can be allowed to show 
themselves out of port in the Black Sea. 

" You will say that this would be an active 
hostility towards Russia ; but so is the decla- 
ration already made, that no Russian ships 
shall be permitted to make any landing or 
attack on any part of the Turkish territory. 
The only difference between the two declara- 
tions is that the one already made is incom- 
plete and insufficient for its purpose, and that 
the one which I propose would be complete 
and sufficient. If the Russian fleet were 
shut up in Sebastopol, it is probable that the 



158 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Turks would be able to make in Asia an 
impression that would tend to facilitate the 
conclusion of peace. 

" With regard to the conditions of peace, 
it seems to me that the only arrangement 
which could afford to Europe a fair security 
against future dangers arising out of the 
encroachments of Russia on Turkey, and the 
attempts of the" Russian Government to 
interfere in the internal affairs of the Turkish 
Empire, would be that arrangement which I 
have often suggested, namely, that the treaty 
to be concluded between Russia and Turkey 
should be an ordinary treaty of peace and 
friendship, of boundaries, commerce, and 
mutual protection of the subjects of the one 
party within the territories of the other ; and 
that all the stipulations which might be 
required for the privileges of the Princi- 
palities and of Servia, and for the protection 
of the Christian religion and its churches and 
the Ottoman dominions by the Sultan and 
the five Powers. By such a treaty, Russia 
would be prevented from dealing single- 
handed with Turkey in regard to those 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 159 

matters on which she has, from time to time, 
endeavoured to fasten a quarrel on the 
Sultan." 

Lord Aberdeen's reply was : — 

" I confess I am not prepared to adopt the 
mode which you think most likely to restore 
peace." 

Lord Palmerston tendered his resignation 
on receiving this reply, but withdrew it ten 
days after when the Cabinet adopted his 
views. 

On June 16, 1854, Lord Palmerston 
wrote to the Duke of Newcastle, then 
Minister of War — "Our only chance of 
bringing Russia to terms is by offensive and 
not by defensive operations. We and the 
French ought to go to the Crimea and take 
Sebastopol. If this blow were accompanied 
by successful operations in Georgia and Cir- 
cassia, we might have a Merry Christmas and 
a Happy New Year." 

Thus we see that the English policy during 
the Crimean crisis changed from peace 
tactics to defensive operations, and was sub- 
sequently turned into an offensive line of 



160 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

action which terminated in a brilliant triumph 
for England. 

But how was Lord Palmerston able to 
carry out his war policy so vigorously ? The 
answer is a very simple one. He was backed 
and urged on by the nation at large, who 
were incensed at the insolence of Russia. 
Thus he was able to pursue his plans, being 
encouraged and supported by a people who 
were well able to carry out what they resolved 
upon. 

Kinglake said he (Lord Palmerston) "was 
gifted with the instinct which enables a man 
to read the heart of a nation." 

His judgment was rightly pronounced, for 
Palmerston saw the feelings of his national 
constituents and steered his course well and 
skilfully. 1 

1 The strength of Lord Palmerston's character and his 
determination in matters of ready action is well illus- 
trated through an incident recorded by Baron Bunsen 
(" Memoirs of Bunsen ") : " Bunsen and Palmerston had 
elected to be rowed over to Portsmouth from Osborne, 
when guests of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, and, the 
weather being rough, the Foreign Minister took the helm, 
demonstrating the connection between steering the vessel 
of State, as Bunsen phrased it, and steering a boat at 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 161 

What, then, was the national feeling of 
England at that time ? 

" In the present instance," said the Prince 
Consort, " their (the English) feeling is some- 
thing of this sort : The Emperor of Russia is 
a tyrant, the enemy of all liberty on the 
Continent, and the oppressor of Poland." 
From these royal remarks, 1 do not think 
I shall be far wrong in saying that the grow- 
ing tendency of the English people towards 
liberalism since the Reform Bill of 1832, and 
the teaching of William Wilberforce, had led 
them to consider Russia not only as a national 
enemy but as a general opponent of the rights 
of humanity and civilization. No wonder 
that a war became a necessity after this 
public manifestation. 

At the end of the last chapter I stated that 
England had rapidly increased in wealth and 
prosperity since the Repeal of the Corn Laws. 
Gladstone, in the House of Commons, stated 

sea — 'Oh, one learns boating at Cambridge, even though one 
may have learnt nothing better] remarked Lord Palmer- 
ston ; and guide the craft safely to shore he certainly 
did. But when they landed, alas ! the train was gone." 

II 



i62 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

that such was the vigour and elasticity of the 
English trade, that even after the disadvantage 
of a bad harvest, and under the pressure of 
war, the imports from day to day, and almost 
from hour to hour, were increasing, and that 
the very last papers laid on the table showed 
within the last three months of the year that 
there was an increase of ,£250,000 in the 
national exports. 1 This, then, was one of the 
reasons which enabled England to carry on 
this war so successfully. 

Let us turn our attention for a short time 
to France, which at this period was under- 
going considerable internal agitation. Re- 
publicanism was now abolished and Mon- 
archy reigned in its stead in the hands of 
Napoleon III. (1852). There seemed every 
prospect of the French Monarchy being firmly 
re-established. 

The French Emperor was very desirous of 
starting a European War for the purpose of 
securing his seat on the throne, and also for the 
aggrandizement of his country abroad. 2 The 

1 Gladstone's speech^ May 8, 1854. 

2 " Napoleon's object was clear : in the first place, to 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 163 

interests of his country, both religious and 
political, were opposed to those of Russia 
with regard to the Holy Places, while both 
England and France had a common interest 
in keeping the Ottoman Empire from Russia. 
This latter interest acted as a means of union 
between the two Powers, both of whom were 
ready at any moment to attack Russia, and 
the publication of the Czar's memorable 
conversation with Sir H. Seymour still 
further cemented that union. 

The result we have already seen. Russia 
was humiliated. 

wrest from the Emperor Nicholas the moral hegemony 
which he wielded on the Continent, and then, after 
conquering Russia, to get his hands free to tear up 
the treaties of 18 15, restore to France her so-called 
natural frontiers, and reconstruct the map of Europe in 
accordance with Napoleonic ideas" (Count Vitzthum's 
" St. Petersburg and London," vol. i. p. 73). 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE BLACK SEA CONFERENCE. 

French influence destroyed by the Franco-Prussian War — 
Russia annuls the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of 
Paris — Condition of Europe prevents their enfo7'ceme7it 
by the Powers — Loiidon Co?iference ; Russia secures 
the Black Sea; England 's mistake — Alsace and Lor- 
rai?ie destroy the balance of power. 

Russia had convinced herself that the separa- 
tion of England from France was not a 
sufficient guarantee to hinder the possibility 
of the alliance of the two Powers against her, 
because a common interest would unite them 
immediately. Russia now determined to 
crush down one of the two Powers, indepen- 
dently of the other, and was only waiting for 
an opportunity to do so. 

In 1870 the Franco-Prussian War broke 
out through the question of the Spanish 
Succession. England maintained a strict 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 165 

neutrality, and this now seemed a glorious 
opportunity for Russia to carry out her long- 
cherished designs. She supported Prussia 
morally, in this way hoping to crush France, 
and then only England would be left to 
attack. The result proved favourable ; 
France was defeated by Prussia, and this 
was followed by the fall of the Monarchy, 
and the proclamation of the Republic (Sep- 
tember 14, 1870). 

Russia now looked around, and at a 
glance saw the favourable position she 
occupied, and her strength. Austria had 
been weakened by the war with Prussia in 
1866, Spain and Italy were convulsed with 
revolutions, Turkey was naturally weak ; 
Prussia had suffered somewhat in 1866 with 
Austria, and with France in 1870. France 
herself had undoubtedly received a crushing 
blow, while England was worried over the 
Alabama claims with America. 

Thus we see the balance of power was 
considerably shaken by the Franco-Prussian 
War, while an alliance among the Western 
states seemed impossible. 



r 

En - stern Europe k frartlec 

Prince Gortchakc 1 - lecbration that the 
Sea scs of the Treat}* of P 

Mill and void. " He declared it 
lgei sol mitted to bv his 

indignant, but 
helpless, as she was unable to 
-. among the Western Powers, 
..nable to cope sing - 

-7 - I 7 

and the Premi: ■ A . E. Gladstone, sent 

to 1 German Chancellor 

: ject, and to inform 

the c l was of such a nature 

allies, would 

; - la." 

Bismarck, who was afraid of a Franco- 

t hnd wished to conciliate 

the R a Empera re commended that a 

era .7 ; 7 held in St. Pd 

The English Government objected 
i Conferee:- h eld in London 

I ■ i Sag 



THE EASTERN QUESTION, 167 

where the following provisions were agreed 
to : — 

"Article I. Articles XL, XIII., and XIV., 
of the Treaty of Paris, 1856, are abrogated. 

"Article II. The principle of the closing 
of the Straits of the Dardanelles and the 
Bosphorus is maintained, with power to his 
Imperial Majesty the Sultan to open the 
said Straits in time of peace to the vessels of 
war of friendly and allied Powers, in case the 
Sublime Porte should judge it necessary in 
order to secure the execution of the stipula- 
tions of the Treaty of Paris. 

"Article III. The Black Sea remains, as 
heretofore, open to the mercantile marine of 
all nations." 

Article IV. The Commission managing 
the navigation of the Danube " is maintained 
in its present composition " for a further 
period of twelve years. 

"Article VIII. The high contracting 
parties renew and confirm all the stipulations 
of 1856, which are not annulled or modified 
by the present treaty." 

This treaty resulted in what Russia washed, 



1 68 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

viz., the opening of the Black Sea to Russian 
war ships — a right which she had held previous 
to the Crimean War. 

Mr. Disraeli (afterwards Lord Beaconsfield) 
vigorously attacked the Gladstonian policy 
by saying that " the neutral character of 
the Black Sea is the essence of the Treaty 
of Paris, and that that, in fact, was the question 
for which we had struggled and made great 
sacrifice and endured these sufferings which 
never can be forgotten," and the " point upon 
which the negotiations for peace (at Vienna, 
1855) was broken off was the neutral character 
of the Black Sea." 1 

1 " No sooner had Napoleon learned that an English 
Cabinet Minister was to go to Vienna than he sent thither 
also his own Minister of Foreign Affairs, M. Drouyn de 
Lhuys, while Prince Gortschakoff, who had already been 
designated as Nesselrode's successor, represented Russia 
at the Conference. The first two points— the cessation of 
the Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, 
and the regulation of the navigation of the Danube in 
conformity with the resolutions of the Congress of Vienna 
— presented little difficulty. On the other hand, a lively 
word combat, and a not less lively interchange of des- 
patches, arose over the third point, which demanded 
the revision of the Dardanelles Treaty of July 13, 1841) 
and the abrogation of Russian supremacy in the Black 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 169 

In answer to this attack Mr. Gladstone 
replied, "I do not speak from direct com- 
munication with Lord Clarendon, but I have 
been told since His death that he never 
attached a value to that neutralization. 

Sea. The words, ' mettre fin a. la preponderance russe 
dans la Mer Noire,' were of a very elastic nature, and 
capable of various interpretations. The Western Powers, 
mindful of Europe, demanded the neutralization of the 
Black Sea and a limitation of the number of Russian and 
Turkish war ships. Gortschakoff declared that Sebastopol 
was not yet taken, and probably never would be taken, 
and that Russia must reject any attempt to limit her 
naval forces as a humiliation unworthy of a Great Power. 
Austria then proposed a compromise that Russia should 
pledge herself to maintain the status quo of 1853 ; and 
that each of the Western Powers should be entitled to 
station two frigates in the Black Sea, in order to see that 
Russia did not increase her fleet. At the same time 
Austria promised to consider it as a casus belli if Russia 
kept there a single ship of war more than in 1853. 
M. Drouyn de Lhuys, who, in the interest of exhausted 
France, was anxious to bring the war to an end, accepted 
this proposed compromise, and induced Lord John 
Russell to do likewise. Both were disavowed. Drouyn 
de Lhuys sent in his resignation, and was succeeded at 
the Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay by Walewski ; but Lord 
John Russell, scorned alike by his friends and foes, 
returned to London, and, in spite of all, remained 
Minister for the present " (Count Vitzthum's, "St. Peters- 
burg and London." 



170 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Again I do not speak from direct communi- 
cation, but I have been told that Lord 
Palmerston always looked upon the neutra- 
lization as an arrangement which might be 
maintained and held together for a limited 
number of years, but which, from its cha- 
racter, it was impossible to maintain as a per- 
manent condition for a great settlement of 
Europe." 

However, Russia had regained what she 
had lost at the close of the Crimean War by 
skilful diplomacy. She now was perfectly at 
liberty to keep her fleet in the Black Sea, and 
to refortify Sebastopol and Keotch to such 
an extent as to render them impregnable. 

She felt gratified at the result of the 
Franco- Prussian War, and on hearing that 
Prussia had annexed Alsace and Lorraine, 
General Ignatieff, the Russian Ambassador 
at Constantinople, hastened to the German 
Ambassador, Count Karserling, and said, 
" Permit me to congratulate you, and thank 
you ; for you it is a prodigious mistake, but 
on Russia you have conferred the greatest 
possible boon." At the time of the annexa- 



THE EA S TERN Q UES TION. 1 7 1 

tion of the two French provinces, Germany 
thought that they would prove of the greatest 
value to the German Empire, but this idea 
proved a mistake, and since then Russia has 
used, and still uses them, as a pivot on which 
the Eastern Question turns. 

Frederick III.'s idea of selling back Alsace 
and Lorraine would no doubt prove a great 
benefit, not only to the German nation, but 
also to the maintenance of the balance of 
power in Europe. 

Yet, though Bismarck defeated Napoleon 
III. in a sanguinary war, Prince Gortschakoff 
had beaten all the signitary powers at the 
Treaty of Paris by one stroke of the pen, and 
the greatest gainer in the Franco-Prussian 
War was not Germany but Russia. Verily, 
indeed, is it once more proved that the Pen 
is mightier than the Sword. 



VII. 

THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR OF 1 8/8. 

Bulgarian atrocities — The Andrassy Note; England de- 
stroys its effect — The Berlin Memorandum ; England 
opposes it — Russia prepares for a Turkish war — Con- 
ference of Constantinople — New Turkish Constitution 
— Russo- Turkish War — Treaty of San Stefano — 
Intervention of the Powers — The Berli?i Congress — 
Final treaty of peace. 

The Slavs migrated to the Balkan Peninsula 
as early as 450 a.d., and Bosnia remained the 
only Slavonic part of the Turkish Empire 
where a native nobility owned the land and a 
peasantry tilled it for them. 

Having been defeated by the Turks, the 
nobility became Mahommedans to save their 
patrimony, while the peasantry, having 
nothing to lose, remained Christians ; but the 
tyrrany of their nobility at length obliged the 
Turks to put an end to the Feudal System in 
Bosnia (1850-1851). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 173 

In August, 1875, Herzegovina (the south- 
western district of Bosnia) revolted against 
the Sultan, being aided by a strong natural 
position and receiving the assistance of both 
Servia and Montenegro. 

While this revolt was going on the 
Bulgarians also rose in rebellion against the 
Sultan (1876), but were put down by the 
Turkish Government, although not without 
shameful cruelties and outrages beino; com- 
mitted by the Turkish troops and militia, 
which caused great indignation throughout 
Europe, 1 and specially so in Russia. This, 
therefore, gave the latter country a good 
opportunity of claiming to be a general pro- 
tector of the Christians in Turkey. 

The Austro-Hungarian Minister, Count 
Andrassy, on behalf of Austria, Germany, and 
Russia, drew up a Note in which five 2 chief 

1 In 1876 (September) Mr. Gladstone published his 
pamphlet entitled " Bulgarian Horrors and the Question 
of the East." It passed through almost countless editions 
and created a great sensation. 

2 " First, religious liberty, in the sense of religious 
equality, full and entire ; second, the abolition of tax- 
farming ; third, the exclusive application to Bosnia and 



i 7 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

concessions were insisted upon from the Porte 
as necessary for the pacification of the re- 
volted provinces. 

Lord Derby, on behalf of the English 
Government, signed I it, but added that the 

Herzegovina of their own direct taxation ; fourth, the ap- 
pointment of an executory Commission to carry these 
reforms into effect, to be composed equally of Mahom- 
medans and Christians; fifth, the amelioration of the 
condition of the rural population by some more satisfac- 
tory arrangement between the Christian Rajahs and the 
Mahommedan Agas, or landowners " (The Duke of 
Argyll's "The Eastern Question," vol. i. p. 161). 

1 " Sir H. Elliot was directed to give a ' general sup- 
port ' to the Andrassy Note. It will be seen that in the 
mode of giving this ' general support ' to the action of the 
European Powers, Her Majesty's Government here con- 
trived to reduce the value of it to the lowest possible 
amount, and expressly to negative the significance of it. 
. . . But more than this — it is distinctly implied that any 
such meaning, if it were entertained, would be a violation 
of the Ninth Article of the Treaty of Paris. The Turks 
were thus encouraged to claim under that treaty a 
licence and immunity which it never was intended to 
afford. It is evident, therefore, that the British Cabinet 
only joined the other Powers, first, because it was impos- 
sible to deny the justice of the demand made on Turkey; 
secondly, because it would be inconvenient to stand 
alone against the united opinion of all the other Cabinets 
of Europe ; thirdly, because Turkey herself saw some 
advantage in accepting the communication " (Ibid. vol. i. 
p. 166). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 175 

integrity l of the Ottoman Empire was to be 
respected. Here the Czar caught a key-note 
of the English policy, and he played on it 
afterwards to his own advantage. 

The Porte accepted the conditions of the 
Note, but the rebels did not trust the Turkish 
promises, so the insurrections continued. 

The Czar then, with Gortschakoff, met 
Bismarck and Andrassy at Berlin, and, 
together, they drew up the " Berlin Memo- 
randum," 2 in which the three Powers asked 

1 Lord Derby said that " the Note now proposed was 
sure to lead to farther diplomatic interference in the in- 
ternal affairs of Turkey." 

2 "First, the provision of means sufficient to settle the 
refugees in their homes ; second, the distribution of these 
means by a mixed Commission, with a Herzegovinian 
Christian as President ; third, the concentration of 
Turkish troops into certain places • fourth, the retention 
of arms by the Christians ; fifth, the Consuls or Delegates 
of the Powers to have a watch over the application 
of the promised reforms and repatriation of the people. 
The Memorandum farther proceeded thus in its closing 
paragraph : If, however, the armistice were to expire 
without the effort of the Powers being successful in 
attaining the ends they have in view, the three 
Imperial Courts are of opinion that it would become 
necessary to supplement their diplomatic action by 
the sanction of an agreement, with a view to such 



i 7 6 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

the Sultan to grant an armistice for two 
months in order that the demands of the 
insurgents might receive a fair consideration. 
Italy and France added their voices, but 
England refused l to sign the Memorandum 
and sent a powerful squadron to Besika Bay, 
expecting that the Sultan would refuse the 
Memorandum because it would endanger the 
integrity of the Ottoman Empire. This 

efficacious measures as might appear to be demanded in 
the interest of general peace, to check the evil and pre- 
vent its development " (The Duke of Argyll's " The 
Eastern Question," vol. i. p. 193). 

1 "The objections of detail taken by the English 
Cabinet to the Berlin Memorandum were at once met by 
Prince Bismarck by the declaration that these points 
were entirely ' open to discussion, that they might be 
modified according to circumstances, and that he, for 
one, would willingly entertain any improvement which 
Her Majesty's Government might have to propose.' . . . 
France implored Her Majesty's Government to reconsider 
its decision, and declared that persistence in it would, at 
such a momentous crisis, be nothing short of a ' public 
calamity.' She ' could not conceal the apprehensions for 
the future to which this refusal have given rise.' Italy 
did the same. The position was, that England objected 
to everything proposed by others, and had nothing to 
propose herself. Continued trust in the Turks was her 
only suggestion " (The Duke of Argyll's "The Eastern 
Question," vol. i, pp. 202, 203). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 177 

" Berlin Memorandum " displays the skilful 
way in which Russia, under the clever 
guidance of the Czar and his Minister Gort- 
schakoff, carried on negotiation. She was 
only seeking a pretence 1 for a single-handed 
war policy with Turkey, and in order to do 
this she proposed measures at Berlin which she 
knew would prove objectionable to England. 
Germany, who dreaded a special alliance 
between France and Russia, was* obliged to 
agree to these measures, thus becoming a 
tool of Russia, who wanted to make En Hand 
first deviate from the Treaties of Paris and 
London, and, if possible, to break down the 
balance of power in Europe which she herself 
had already done by her withdrawal from the 
Black Sea clauses in the Treaty of Paris. 

1 "At the first meeting of the Congress (June 13, 
1878) Lord Beaconsfield made his concerted objec- 
tion to the advanced position of the Russian troops 
at the gates of Constantinople. Count Schouvaloff re- 
plied that this advanced position had been taken up 
by the Russian army in consequence of the entry of the 
English fleet into the Bosphorus. Prince Bismarck, the 
President of the Congress, expressed himself satisfied 
with the Russian reply" (The Duke of Argyll's "The 
Eastern Question," vol. ii. p. 144). 

12 



i 7 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

England fell into the snare together with the 
other Powers. "She objected to the Berlin 
Memorandum, refused to sign, and sent a 
fleet to Besika Bay in support of her 
objection. This was just what Russia 
desired. 

A new Sultan now ascended the throne, 
and Russian influence declined while that of 
England increased. 

In July, 1J876, Prince Milan of Servia, and 
Prince Mikita of Montenegro, declared war 
against Turkey, having open assistance from 
Russia. The rebels, however, were sub- 
jugated by the Turks. 

In November, 1S76, Alexander II. of 
Russia, made a public declaration that " if 
Turkey did not give due guarantees for the 
better government of her Christian subjects 
he would force them to do so, either in 
concert with his allies or by independent 
action." 

The European Powers, in consequence of 
this proclamation, proposed a Conference at 
Constantinople to settle the matter. The 
Czar, seeing that the Conference was inevit- 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 179 

able, agreed to it. The representatives met, 
and, as was to be expected, asked nearly the 
same conditions as had been contained in the 
" Andrassy Note." 

The promulgation of a new Constitution for 
the Ottoman Empire was the result of the 
Conference, much to the disappointment of 
Russia, who did not expect that any such result 
would be arrived at. Thus, in order to stop 
any further reforms or concessions being 
made by Turkey, she succeeded in removing 
from power the author of the new Constitu- 
tion, viz., Midhat Pasha, who was an impor- 
tant personage in Turkish politics. 

The following little story shows the skilful 
way in which the Turkish Minister was 
removed from power by the agency of 
Russia : — 

" During the Conference, the day after the 
Turks had proclaimed their new Constitu- 
tion, General Ignatieff met Sir W. White. 

" * Have you read the Constitution ?' asked 
Ignatieff. ' No,' said the Englishman ; 
4 what does it matter? It is not serious.' 
'But,' said Ignatieff, 'you must really read 



1S0 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

one Article;' and so saying he pointed out the 
Article which set forth that all provisions to 
the contrary notwithstanding the Sultan was 
to retain an absolute ri^ht to banish from the 
capital any person whose presence might 
seem objectionable to him. ' Mark my 
words,' said Ignatieff, ' the first man to be 
exiled under that clause will be Midhat 
Pasha, the author of the Constitution.' 

" The prediction was fulfilled to the letter. 
Meeting Ignatieff some time after, Sir W. 
White recalled the prophecy and its fulfil- 
ment. ' Oh ! yes,' said the general, care- 
lessly ; ' I arranged that.' ' But you had left 
Constantinople before Midhat's exile.' 'Cer- 
tainly, but I arranged it just before I left.' 
4 How ? ' 'It was very simple ; the weather 
was stormy in the Black Sea, and I could not 
leave for some days after the departure of 
my colleague. I went on board my steamer 
and anchored exactly opposite the Sultan's 
palace. I did not go and bid him farewell, 
but waited. In a day or two, as I anticipated, 
there came an aide-de-camp from the Sultan 
to express his regret and surprise that I, 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 181 

whom he had known better than any of the 
Ambassadors, should be departing without 
paying him a farewell visit. I replied that, 
of course, I should have been delighted to 
have paid my respects to His Majesty, but 
that it was no longer necessary. I had paid 
my farewell visit to Midhat Pasha, as, under 
the Constitution, it was to him, not the 
Sultan, that such an act of respect was due. 
Almost immediately after arriving in Russia 
I heard of the exile of Midhat. My parting 
shot had secured his downfall.' " J 

The Conference failed, and Russia declared 
war against Turkey, for now she had obtained 
what she had been striving for during the 
diplomatic transactions, viz., a pretence for a 
single-handed policy with regard to Turkey, 
and, secondly, she had obtained sufficient 
time for making all necessary w T ar prepara- 
tions. Now, although she had already got 
back what she had lost in the Crimean War 
(through the Franco- Prussian War), yet she 
was determined to obtain what she had 

1 "Truth about Russia," p. 282, 



i82 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

intended to take at the Crimean War, viz., 
Constantinople. 

A large Russian army crossed the Pruth 
(April, 1877), and encamped before Constan- 
tinople. In Asia Kars was captured. This 
led to the Treaty of San Stefano. 

By this treaty the Ottoman Empire in 
Europe was completely abrogated. It re- 
cognized the independence of Servia, Monte- 
negro, and Roumania ; Bulgaria was created, 
and its boundaries now extended to the Black 
and ^Egean Seas, embracing several valu- 
able harbours. Although the latter country 
still remained tributary to Turkey, yet Russia 
had the appointment of a Christian prince in 
her hands. It has now to have a separate 
administration, to be supervised by Russian 
commissioners, and was also to be garrisoned 
by Russian troops. 

In Bosnia, Crete, Thessaly, and Epirus a 
certain amount of reform was to be intro- 
duced by the Porte under the supervision 
of Russia. It was also enacted that the 
part of Bessarabia taken from Russia in 
1856 should be ceded back to her, to which 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 183 

Lord Palmerston attached great value, " be- 
cause," he said, " it is not of local, but of 
European interest." Kars, Batoum, and 
other adjoining districts in Asia were added 
to Russia, by which cession she undoubtedly 
held the strongholds of Armenia. Turkey 
had to pay Russia three hundred million 
roubles. 

The results of this treaty may be described 
as follows : It was nothing less than (1) 
" To take all the European dominions of the 
Ottoman Empire from the Porte and put 
them under the administration of Russia ; " 
(2) " to make the Black Sea as much a 
Russian lake as the Caspian ; " (3) to give 
Russia a firm hold of the Mediterranean, and 
thereby imperil the naval supremacy of Eng- 
land in that quarter. 

Naturally, England could not accept the 
Treaty of San Stefano without some altera- 
tions. Lord Derby resigned on the refusal 
of his demand that the treaty should be laid 
before Parliament, and Lord Salisbury sent 
out a vigorous circular which showed the 
injustice towards other races of a large 



1 84 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Bulgaria establishing Slav supremacy in the 
Balkan Peninsula under Russian influence ; 
also the loss of the ports of Bourgas and 
Batoum by the Turks would give Russia 
command of the Black Sea trade, while 
the cession of Kars to her would also in- 
fluence Turkey's Asiatic possessions. This 
would also affect the English interests in 
the Persian Gulf, the Levant, and the Suez 
Canal, which were in the Ottoman keeping, 
and therefore was a matter of extreme soli- 
citude for England. She would be willing, 
however, to join in general stipulations made 
by the joint Powers, but would not submit to 
Prince Gortschakoffs commands. Again, an 
unpaid pecuniary debt owing to Russia by 
Turkey would give the former dangerous 
power. 

The following words occur in the first 
despatch of the English Government to 
Russia : — ■ 

"The course on which the Russian Govern- 
ment has entered involves graver and more 
serious consideration. It is in contravention 
of the stipulation of the Treaty of Paris 



THE EASTERN Q UES TION. 1 8 5 

(March 30, 1856), by which Russia and 
the other signatory Powers engaged, each 
on its own part, to respect the independence 
and the territorial integrity of the Otto- 
man Empire. At the close of the Con- 
ference of London of 1871, the above 
plenipotentiary, in common with those of 
the other Powers, signed a declaration 
affirming it to be an essential principle of 
the law of nations that no Power can liberate 
itself from the engagement of a treaty, nor 
modify the stipulations thereof, unless with 
the consent of the contracting parties by 
means of an amicable arrangement. In 
taking action against Turkey on his own 
part, and having recourse to arms without 
further consultation with his allies, the 
Emperor of Russia has separated himself 
from the European concert hitherto main- 
tained, and has at the same time departed 
from the rule to which he himself had 
solemnly recorded his consent," l 

The English Government addressed a 
second despatch to Russia, stating that the 
1 Lord Beaconsfield's speech, April 8, 1878. 



1 86 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

English Government is " of opinion that 
any treaty concluded by the Governments 
of Russia and the Porte affecting the treaties 
of 1856 and 187 1 must be a European treaty, 
and would not be valid without the assent 
of the Powers who were parties to those 
treaties." 

The Russian Minister's (GortschakofTs) 
reply w r as received at last : " We repeat 
the assurance that we do not intend to 
settle by ourselves European questions 
having reference to the peace which is to 
be made." 

Then the English Government sent an- 
other despatch to Russia and the other 
foreign Courts, and it was communicated 
through an English Ambassador at St. 
Petersburg that the Russian Emperor 
" stated categorically that questions bear- 
ing on European interests will be concerted 
with European Powers, and he had given 
Her Majesty's Government clear and positive 
assurance to this effect." 

At length Austria, with the full apprecia- 
tion of Russia, invited England to a Confe- 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 187 

rence at Berlin for the object of establishing 
"an European agreement as to the modifi- 
cations which it might become necessary to 
introduce in existing treaties in order to 
make them harmonize with the present 
situation." 

The English Government, however, stipu- 
lated beforehand "that it would be desirable 
to have it understood in the first place that 
all questions dealt with in the San Stefano 
Treaty between Russia and Turkey '' should 
be fully considered in the Congress, and 
"that no alteration in the condition of things 
previously established by treaty should be 
acknowledged as valid until it has received 
the consent of the Powers." 

Russia replied that " the preliminary treaty 
of peace between Russia and Turkey will be 
textually committed to the Great Powers 
before the meeting of the Congress, and 
that in the Congress itself each Power will 
have full liberty of assent and of its free 
action " (" la pleine libertd de ses appreciations 
et de son action "). 

This was a diplomatic triumph for Eng- 



1 88 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

land, and the treaty was formally submitted 
to the Congress. But there were certain 
facts which must not escape our notice, for 
just before the publication of the Treaty of 
San Stefano the excitement in England had 
attained its zenith. Russia, perceiving this, 
and hearing that England was quite ready to 
take up arms against her, took the utmost 
precautions not to injure English interests ; 
so a Russian occupation of Constantinople, 
or any other circumstance which might 
excite the enmity of England, were omitted 
in the San Stefano Treaty, 

When this became known in England the 
excitement abated somewhat ; and, seeing 
this, Russia consented to submit the treaty 
to the Congress, 

The Congress was opened at Berlin, under 
the presidency of the German Chancellor, 
Bismarck ; and Beaconsfield firmly stood his 
ground at the Congress, previously calling 
out the reserve forces and summoning seven 
thousand Indian troops to Malta. Austria 
began to arm. Russia now could not be 
obstinate. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 189 

The following conditions were fixed and 
drawn up by the Congress : — 

Bulgaria, 

Article I. Bulgaria is constituted an auto- 
nomous and tributary principality under the 
suzerainty of His Imperial Majesty the 
Sultan ; it will have a Christian Govern- 
ment and a national militia. 

Article III. The Prince of Bulgaria shall 
be freely elected by the population and con- 
firmed by the Sublime Porte, with the assent 
of the Powers. No member of the reigning 
dynasties of the Great European Powers 
may be elected Prince of Bulgaria. 

In case of a vacancy in the princely dignity, 
the election of the new prince shall take place 
under the same conditions and with the same 
forms. 

Eastern Ronmelia. 

Article XIII. A province is formed south 
of the Balkans which will take the name of 
" Eastern Roumelia," and will remain under 
the direct political and military authority of 



190 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, under 
conditions of administrative autonomy. It 
shall have a Christian Governor-general. 

Article XVII. The Governor-general of 
Eastern Roumelia shall be nominated by 
the Sublime Porte, with the assent of the 
Powers, for a term of five years. 

Crete, &c. 

Article XXIII. The Sublime Porte under- 
takes to scrupulously apply to the island of 
Crete the Organic Law of 1868, with such 
modifications as may be considered equit- 
able. 

Similar laws adapted to local requirements, 
excepting as regards the exemption from 
taxation granted to Crete, shall also be 
introduced into the other parts of Turkey 
in Europe for which no special organization 
has been provided by the present treaty. 

Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

Article XXV. The provinces of Bosnia 
and Herzegovina shall be occupied and ad- 
ministered by Austria- Hungary. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 191 

Montenegro, Servta, and Rozunajiia. 

Article XXVI. The independence of 
Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania is re- 
cognized by the Sublime Porte, and by all 
the high contracting parties, subject to the 
conditions set forth in the following : — 

In Montenegro the difference of religious 
creeds and confessions shall not be alleged 
against any person as a ground for exclu- 
sion or incapacity in matters relating to the 
enjoyment of civil and political rights, ad- 
mission to. public employments, functions, 
and honours, or the exercise of the various 
professions and industries in any locality 
whatsoever. 

The freedom and outward exercise of all 
forms of worship shall be assured to all 
persons belonging to Montenegro, as well 
as to foreigners ; and no hindrance shall be 
offered either to the hierarchical organization 
of the different communions or to their rela- 
tions with their spiritual chiefs. 

Article XLV. The principality of Rou- 
mania restores to His Majesty the Emperor 



1 92 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

of Russia that portion of Bessarabian terri- 
tory detached from Russia by the Treaty of 
Paris of 1856. 

Cessions in Asia. 

Article LVIII. The Sublime Porte cedes 
to the Russian Empire in Asia the territories 
of Ardahan, Kars, and Batoum, together with 
the latter port. 

Article XIX. His Majesty the Emperor 
declares that it is his intention to constitute 
Batoum a free port, essentially commercial. 

Article LX. The valley of Alaxhkerd and 
the town of Bayazid, ceded to Russia, are 
restored to Turkey. 

The Sublime Porte cedes to Persia the 
town and territory of Khotou for its delimi- 
tation of the frontiers of Turkey and of 
Persia. 1 

1 "The topics regulated by the three Treaties of Paris, 
London, and Berlin are : — 

" (i.) The admission of the Porte to the concert of 
Europe (P. Art. 7). 

" (ii.) The agreement as to resort to mediation (P. 8). 

" (iii.) Religious equality in Turkey (P. 9 ; B. 62). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 193 

The Anglo-Turkish Convention. 

Article I. Batouni, Ardahan, Kars, or 
any of them, shall be retained by Russia, 
and if any attempt shall be made at any 
future time by Russia to take possession 
of any further territories of His Imperial 
Majesty the Sultan in Asia, as fixed by the 
Definitive Treaty of Peace, England engages 
to join His Imperial Majesty the Sultan in 
defending them by force of arms. 

In order to enable England to make neces- 

" (iv.) The navigation of the Straits (P. 10 ; L. 2). 

"(v.) The navigation of the Black Sea (P. 12; L. 3). 

"(vi.) The navigation of the Danube (P. 13-193 L. 
4-7; B. 52-57; L. 1883), 

"(vii.) Roumania (B. 43-51). 

" (viii.) Servia (B. 34, 40-42). 

" (ix.) Montenegro (B. 26-31, 33). 

"(x.) Bulgaria (B. 1-12). 

"(xi.) Eastern Roumelia (B. 13-21). 

" (xii.) Bosnia and Herzegovina (B. 25). 

11 (xiii.) Other European provinces (B. 23). 

" (xiv.) The Armenian provinces (B. 61). 

"(xv.) Cessions to Greece (B. 24 ; Cons, of 1881). 

" (xvi.) The Russian boundaries (B. 45, 58-60). 

" (xvii.) The Persian boundary (B. 6oj." 
(Holland's " European Conceit in the Eastern Ques- 
tion "). 



i 9 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

sary provision for executing her engagement, 
His Imperial Majesty the Sultan further 
consents to assign the island of Cyprus to be 
occupied and administrated by England. 

Beaconsfield having thus attained "peace 
with honour " for England, returned, and in 
a speech l in the House, said, " They are 
not movements of war, they are operations 
of peace and civilization ; we have no reason 
to fear war. Her Majesty has fleets and 
armies which are second to none." 

1 In the House of Lords, July 18, 1878. 



VIII. 

REMARKS UPON THE TREATY OF BERLIN. 

The position of affairs — The Salisbury-Schouvaloff Memo- 
randum and its disastrous effect on the negotiations 
at Berlin — Russia's gain — England and Austria the 
guardia?is of Turkey — Austria's vigorous and straight- 
forward Balkan policy ■ — Thwarted in Servia but 
triumphant in Bulgaria — Relations of Greece to Austria 
—Solution of the Crete question — Neutrality of Belgium 
threatened — Importance of Constantinople to Russia; 
the Anglo- Turkish Convention — England's feeble policy 
in Asia Minor — The question of Egypt — A new route 
to India by railway from the Mediterranean to Persian 
Gulf— England' 's relation to Constantinople. 

Let us now review and make a few remarks 
on the Treaty of Berlin. 

Firstly, the whole treaty seems to me to 
be virtually a repetition l and revision of the 
conditions of the European concert in the 
Eastern question. 

Prince Bismarck's opinion was that the 

1 See Holland's " European Concert in the Eastern 
Question." 



1 96 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Treaty of San Stefano meant to alter " the 
state of things as fixed by former European 
Conventions," consequently the Berlin Con- 
gress followed for "the free discussion of 
the Cabinets' signatories of the treaties of 
1856 and 1871." 

The Treaties of Paris and London being 
still in force, and owing to the rise of a new 
nationality and the redistribution of territory, 
these treaties were altered and amended by 
the Congress. 

Before we criticize the Treaty of Berlin 
we 011 eh t to bear two things in our mind. 
(1) At the Conference of Paris, 1856, Eng- 
land, France, and Turkey were victorious, 
while Russia was conquered. (2) At the 
Berlin Congress, 1878, Russia was victorious 
over Turkey, while England and France 
were neutral. 

In both meetings it was asserted and 
claimed that the Powers collectively had 
the right of settling the Eastern Question 
as against Russia's single-handed inter- 
ference, England leading the van with fair 
words but selfish interests. 



THE EA S TERN Q U EST ION. 197 

On Russia concluding the San Stefano 
Treaty with Turkey, England said that, 
according to the conditions of the Treaty 
of Paris, the Great Powers of Europe 
" engaged each on its own part to respect 
the independence and integrity of the 
Ottoman Empire," and consequently Turkish 
affairs produced a general interest through- 
out Europe. 

Russia had committed a serious breach 
of " the law of nations " by a treaty single- 
handed with Turkey. When the European 
Congress at Berlin was consented to by 
Russia, England said that the Treaty of 
San Stefano was not valid without the con- 
sent of the signatory Powers of the Treaties 
of Paris and London. She also demanded 
from Russia that, " in the Congress itself, 
each Power should have full liberty of 
assent and free action." These demands 
seemed perfectly reasonable. However, 
England, before the Berlin meeting, con- 
tracted a secret agreement with Russia, in 
which the modifications asked for by Eng- 
land in the Treaty of San Stefano were 



i 9 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

specified. This agreement did not leave out 
the bringing in of other changes by mutual 
consent, but, if these failed, tended to be a 
mutual engagement by the ambassadors of 
Russia and Great Britain as to their general 
behaviour and conduct at the Congress. This 
secret agreement between the two Powers 
practically blocked the full liberty of the 
other Powers and the full amount of good they 
might otherwise have done. England had 
been one of the first to attack Russia for 
committing a breach of the Treaties of 
Paris and London ; yet she overlooked the 
fact that she herself had morally broken 
the same treaties by her secret negotiation 
with Russia, the other Powers not being at 
the time cognizant of the fact. 

Once more Russia, by the Black Sea 
Conference, had gained full freedom on the 
Black Sea, now she had regained the part 
of Bessarabia which she had lost during the 
Crimean War, the principal object of which 
was to drive Russia from the banks of the 
Danube. The above-mentioned territory 
was ceded to Russia through the influence 



THE EASTERN QUESTION, 199 

of Lord Salisbury, who had secretly promised 
Schouvaloff, the Russian ambassador, that he 
would support the Russian demand with 
regard to that land. 

By the Berlin Treaty England and Austria 
were invested with a special responsibility 
for protecting the integrity of the Ottoman 
Empire against Russian aggression — Eng- 
land in Asia Minor, and Austria in the 
Balkans. 

If Russia attacked through Asia Minor 
the English interests would be imperilled ; 
and by the disappearance of the Balkan 
States, then Austria would be open to 
Russian immediate attacks — a consummation 
which would be little desired by that 
Power. 

This responsibility has undoubtedly from 
that time engrossed the attention of Austria 
and Hungary. She has had to encounter 
several difficulties. Bessarabia was no longer 
a Turkish province, and had been ceded 
to Russia by the Salisbury-Schouvaloff 
memorandum. Also there was no possi- 
bility of the Balkan States being confede- 



200 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

rated owing to the different races, language, 
and feelings of the nationality. 

In September, 1879, Bismarck visited 
Vienna and concluded an Austro-German de- 
fensive alliance against the alliance of France 
and Russia. Bismarck, however, described 
the German policy in the following terse 
manner : " Fight by all means, if you feel 
yourself strong enough to beat Russia 
single-handed. France and Germany will 
see all fair, and you can hardly expect any- 
body effectually to help you." 

Notwithstanding these rather unfavourable 
circumstances, and her financial difficulties as 
well, still the policy of Austria is at the 
present time carried on straightforwardly and 
vigorously, and the duty with which she 
charged herself at the Berlin Treaty is ably 
done, and is well backed up by the five 
million Magyars who inhabit Hungary and 
the adjoining provinces. This nation had 
been cruelly put under Austria by Russia. 
(1848-49), and consequently their hatred 
against Russia was deeply rooted. 

At present, therefore, Russia's schemes 



. THE EA S TERN Q UES TION, 20 1 

with regard to Constantinople have been 
frustrated, and Austria holds the lead in the 
Balkan Peninsula race. 

Austria was asked to occupy Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, in order to secure peace and 
order there. She did so, and, notwithstand- 
ing an armed resistance, entered and fulfilled 
her promise. She is now strengthening her 
hold on these states by stationary garrisons 
of soldiers in different parts, and also Jesuits, 
who exercise a moral influence over the 
people. The affairs of Servia have also 
deeply occupied the attention of the Austrian 
Government. She captured King Milan, 
and used him as a tool for her own purposes. 
Russia, however, desired to get hold of 
Servia through the ex-queen. 

Intrigues at the Servian Court were 
numerous, and at last the miserable divorce 
of the king and queen leaked out. The 
present young king ascended the throne. 
This was a blow to the Austrian influence. 

Bulgaria had been declared an independent 
country by the Berlin Treaty. On this state 
the question of supremacy between Russia 



2o2 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

and Austria in the Balkans hangs to a great 
degree. In 1855 Bulgaria and Eastern 
Roumelia were united into a single state. 
This revolution occasioned very great dis- 
pleasure in Russia, and under her influence 
Prince Alexander was kidnapped and com- 
pelled to abdicate, and Prince Ferdinand of 
Coburg was elected as the ruling prince. 

Although of German extraction, he is 
an Austrian by allegiance, and a Roman 
Catholic. He was originally an officer in 
the Hungarian army. There seems to me no 
doubt that his election was illegal, because, 
in the first place, by the Berlin Treaty the 
ruling prince must belong to the Greek 
Church. 

Prince Ferdinand was quite ready to sub- 
mit his claim for decision to the Great 
Powers, and abide by the result. All the 
Powers except England and Austria declared 
that he had no claim to the crown, but the 
two had their own way, and he ascended 
the Bulgarian throne — another repulse and 
blow to Russian influence. Prince Alexander 
meanwhile was given a post in the Austro- 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 203 

Hungarian army. Only recently, to show 
the friendly spirit that exists between Austria 
and Bulgaria, a loan has been concluded 
and advanced by the former to the latter. 

Undoubtedly Austria committed a slight 
mistake in her policy with regard to Greece. 
She had arrogantly displayed her fleet and 
strength at Salonika, which no doubt was a 
source of irritation to Greece. Her best 
policy would have been kindness and con- 
sideration, not forcible means, for the pros- 
perity of Austria was to a certain extent 
dependent on her treatment of neighbouring 
countries, and, together with the Great Powers 
she was to a certain extent dependent upon 
Greece's action. The latter, therefore, was 
a necessary bulwark against Russian en- 
croachments, and was thus of primary im- 
portance to England, France, and Italy. 
If, therefore, the Turks were driven from 
Europe, Greece would occupy the place of 
Turkey with regard to Russia, and would be 
the only obstacle to Russian Mediterranean 
advance. " I would never permit," said the 
Czar Nicholas, ''such an extension of Greece 



204 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

as would render her a powerful state." Truly 
Greece might well be called the Belgium of 
the Mediterranean ! 

By the Berlin Treaty the Porte was advised 
to cede Thessaly and Epirus to Greece. This 
was done, and as the Greeks were noted for 
being good traders and sailors, great progress 
and improvement was made in their newly 
acquired territory. 

It is difficult to see the reason why the 
Berlin Coneress did not advise the Porte to 
cede Crete to Greece. If the island was left 
alone it would be harmless, and exercise no 
influence on the naval supremacy of the 
Mediterranean. 

However, an occupation of Crete by a Euro- 
pean Power would to a great extent change 
the balance of naval power in the Mediter- 
ranean, destroy European tranquillity and 
peace, the Levant would be in the hands of 
the Cretan occupiers. Again, its position 
would completely command the yEgean Sea, 
and if properly fortified might be rendered 
almost impregnable. Its natural- wealth, 
population, and general productiveness 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 205 

afford ample resources both in times of 
war and peace ; in fact, it might be very- 
well termed the Second Gate to the Black 
Sea. 

Therefore it seems to me the best policy 
to let this important island remain in a 
neutral state by an agreement between the 
Great Powers, and the sooner it is agreed 
to the better it would be for the peace of 
Europe generally. 

In my opinion it would have been better 
to have placed it under Grecian rule for the 
following reasons : — ■ 

(1) Because Greece herself was a neutral 
nation. (2) They were a commercial people, 
and peaceful, which would have a beneficial 
effect upon the island. (3) More than half 
of the Cretan population are of Grecian 
extraction. 

There is no doubt that if any one I of the 
Great Powers had proposed the cession of 

1 At the ninth meeting of the Congress "the Greek 
delegates asked the Congress to sanction the annexation 
to the Hellenic Kingdom of the island of Crete, and the 
province of Thessaly and Epirus ; ' (The Duke of Argyll's 
11 The Eastern Question," vol. ii. p. 167). 



206 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Crete to Greece it would have met with the 
general approbation of the Congress. This 
would not have met with Turkish opposition, 
particularly as England had before the Berlin 
Congress mentioned it in the Anglo-Turkish 
agreement ; and to show that Turkey did not 
attach much importance to Crete, it is related 
in Turkish history that it was offered to 
Mehemet Ali as a reward for his help in the 
Greek insurrection ; besides, the national force 
of Turkey was not large enough to utilize 
the strong natural position of the island. 

Austria, 1 unless she had been influenced by 
her national vanity, would have agreed to 
such a proposal owing to the great value as a 
national defence that she received from the 
Balkan States. Again, Germany, France, 

1 " Russia had pointedly and emphatically declared 
that she would not oppose any larger measure of liberty 
which the Congress might desire to secure to the 
provinces bordering on Greece. There was no symptom 
of any serious opposition from any other Powers. But 
England had deserted the cause of Greece, because they 
sold it to the Turks as part of the price to be paid for the 
island of Cyprus" (The Duke of Argyll's, "The Eastern 
Question," vol. ii. p. 170). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 207 

and Italy could find no reasonable argument 
for opposing this plan. 

The policy of England with regard to a 
neutral state has always been to strengthen 
its national power, and that to such a degree 
as to properly maintain its fixed neutrality. 

In 181 5 England ceded the Java Islands 
to the Dutch on the formation of the Nether- 
lands at the Congress of Vienna. Why did 
she do this ? For this reason : because by 
doing this the new States would be rendered 
neutral in case of a French or German inva- 
sion, and by this cession of Java the Dutch 
national power was increased in every way, 
and their power of maintaining a strict 
neutrality rendered stronger. 

Another instance may strengthen my 
statement. Corfu, an important military 
and naval post, was put under English 
protection at the Vienna Congress, 1815. 
Lord Palmerston at one time saw that it 
would be impolitic to hand over Corfu to 
Austria, and declared that the islands ought 
never to be abandoned by England. 

However, when the new kingdom of 



2oS JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Greece was formed England cordially agreed 
to hand over Corfu and several other islands 
to Greece, on the condition that the Greeks 
should choose a king subject to the approval 
of England. The fortifications of Corfu were 
demolished, and the neutrality of the islands 
was declared by the Great Powers. 

These circumstances, then, tend to show us 
that England was distinctly favourable ' to 
the cession of Crete to Greece, and they were 
considerably strengthened by the fact that 
Greece was an ally of England, and the 
commercial relations between the two were 
very free. 

There is no doubt that the marriage of the 
Crown Prince of Greece with a German 
Princess (1889) has morally strengthened 
the position and power of Greece. However, 
Greece still needs material strength for the 
maintenance of a strict neutrality. 



1 "Returning to Greece," said Beaconsfield, "no one 
could doubt as to the future of this country. States, 
like individuals, which have a future, are in a position to 
be able to wait " (The Duke of Argyll's " The Eastern 
Question," vol. ii. p. 169). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 209 

Turning- to another country, we find that it 
is a matter of considerable doubt whether 
Belgium can maintain a firm neutrality in 
case of a Franco-German war. At the time 
of Lord Palmerston she might perhaps have 
been able to do so, but the recent discoveries 
in the world of science, and their application 
to military purposes, and the immense increase 
of the French and German armies, have 
changed the military world, and the neutrality 
of Belgium is a doubtful point. In 1887 an 
important discussion on this question took 
place, which resulted in the fortification of 
Namur and Liege. This was followed by 
the fortification of the Meuse, but it is said 
that the Belgians have not enough troops to 
garrison these newly-made defences. It has 
been publicly admitted in Belgium that their 
national force is not sufficient to defend a 
violation of neutrality against France and 
Germany, therefore Belgium must regard 
the first violator of her neutrality as her 
national enemy, and will be obliged to ally 
herself with a nation which is an enemy of 
the state which has violated neutrality. This 

14 



2io JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

is not the Belgium which Lord Palmerston 
meant it to be. 

Another important fact is that since the 
Franco-German war German attention has 
been turned to the North Sea, and a new 
naval harbour and arsenal have been built at 
Wihelmshafen. Two other large harbours 
in the North Sea have also been improved 
lately, viz., Hamburg and Bremen. Kiel, 
the finest port on the Baltic, has been confis- 
cated, and is now connected with the North 
Sea by a canal, through which ships of large 
tonnage may one day pass. Numerous 
ironclads and fleets of large merchant and 
emigrant steam vessels have been constructed 
which, in case of war, can be armed and 
turned into transports. Her land forces have 
been well organized and augmented, and 
military tactics scientifically developed. From 
these threatening facts it is certain that in the 
event of a Franco-German war both Holland 
and Belgium would occupy most dangerous 
positions. Having these events staring them 
in the face, only one expedient could present 
itself to the two states, viz., union. This 



THE EASTERN QUESTION, 211 

would enable them to show a powerful front 
to the rival Powers, and would enable them 
both to maintain a united fixed neutrality, 
thus showing Lord Palmerston's mistaken 
policy of the separation of the two states to 
be a weak one with regard to the present 
state of affairs, though perhaps it may have 
served its purpose at that time. 

All these arguments go to prove that a 
cession of Crete to Greece would be beneficial 
to both European and Grecian interests. 

Constantinople was hardly mentioned in 
the Berlin Treaty, although it is said that 
Lord Beaconsfield had suggested to General 
Ignatieff a Russian occupation of the Bos- 
phorus with an English one of Mitylene. 
Ignatieff said, however, that " Mitylene was 
too near, as it was only two hours' steam 
from the north of the Dardanelles." Lord 
Beaconsfield did not, therefore, press the 
discussion. The importance of Constanti- 
nople can be explained in a few words. 

By possession of the Straits Russia would 
be able to make the Black Sea a second 
Caspian, whose coasts are left undefended, 



212 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

and it would become a great Russian arsenal, 
for ten or fifteen thousand troops would 
be sufficient to shut out an English fleet from 
the Straits, and by this means quite two 
hundred thousand Russian troops could be 
withdrawn from the Black Sea and turned to 
the Balkans, Asia Minor, or Central Asia. 



The Anglo-Turkish Convention. 

Notwithstanding the fact that Austria has 
fulfilled her contract in preventing Russian 
aggression through the Balkans, yet Russia 
could find a way through Asia Minor, 
although her progress through Asia was 
stopped by England at the Anglo-Turkish 
Convention. 

By this treaty, however, England committed 
a still more grave and serious breach of the 
Treaties of 1856 and 1871 than by this 
Berlin Treaty. Yet although England and 
Russia had made a secret agreement before- 
hand, still the Berlin Treaty was discussed 
and drawn up by the Congress. Therefore 
England was only morally to blame. But 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 213 

the Anglo-Turkish Convention was concluded 
between the two countries themselves, and 
was never submitted for the consideration of 
the Great Powers. Lord Beaconsfield sought 
to screen England by declaring that Russia 
had concluded the San Stefano Treaty with 
Turkey without the knowledge and consent 
of the Powers, and Russia herself, therefore, 
had broken the principles of the 1856 and 
1 87 1 Treaties. Yet this did not conceal the 
fact that England herself had not acted up 
to her tenets in the Anglo-Turkish Conven- 
tion. 

The Porte ceded Ardahan, Kars, and 
Batoum, together with its port, to Russia. 
England occupied Cyprus, and engaged to 
defend Asiatic Turkey, Syria, Palestine, 
Assyria, Arabia, and Armenia, against Rus- 
sian invasion. 

Has England performed her contract in 
Asiatic Turkey as Austria has done in the 
Balkans ? We will see. Cyprus is left 
almost in the same condition as it was before 
our English occupation, and nothing has 
been done by England for the defence of 



214 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Asiatic Turkey, while only a few hundred 
soldiers guard against a Russian invasion 
in Asia Minor. Surely this cannot be 
a sufficient number of men to withstand a 
Russian army. What, then, has become of 
the Anglo-Turkish Convention ? Russia has 
taken advantage of this, and is doing her 
utmost to bring about war in that quarter. 

By the Berlin Treaty the Russian Emperor 
declared that it was his intention to constitute 
Batoum a free port essentially commercial. 
Lord Salisbury interpreted this remark that 
the port of Batoum was to be only a com- 
mercial port. The Russian Emperor has, 
however, changed his intention, and Batoum 
is essentially a fortress, and is connected with 
Poti by a railway through Kutais. 

Why cannot, therefore, Russia have an idea 
of breaking the Berlin Treaty with equal 
freedom as England did with regard to the 
Treaties of 1856 and 1871 by concluding the 
Anglo-Turkish Convention single-handed ? 
It seems to me that Russia has a great 
opportunity of advancing to Erzeroum, and 
from there proceeding to Alexandretta ; and 



THE EA S TERN QUES TION. 2 1 5 

from there to Constantinople. At any rate 
she has ample opportunities of reaching the 
Persian Gulf by piercing the northern fron- 
tiers and western part of Persia, and thus 
completing the far-seeing policies of Peter 
the Great, Nicholas, and Alexander. 

How can England withstand this ? When 
Cyprus was placed under English administra- 
tion both France and Italy were opposed to 
this, France especially so, because she had a 
special interest with regard to Syria, Mow- 
ever, she concluded a secret agreement with 
England, that the latter would consent to a 
French Protectorate over Tunis, which was 
done in 1881, a protectorate which is now 
extending to Tripoli. Many regard this 
action of France as an indirect third offer of 
Egypt to England, the first having been 
made by Nicholas I., and the second by Louis 
Philippe. 

Whatever the French occupation of Tunis 
might be, England occupied Egypt in 1885, 
thus fulfilling Lord Palmerstons prophecy of 
a quarter of a century before, when he said 
that " if a practicable waterway were created 



216 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

between the Gulf of Pelusium and the Red 
Sea England would be compelled sooner or 
later to annex Egypt, and that he opposed 
M. de Lessep's scheme because he considered 
it undesirable that England should annex 
territory in that part of the world." l 

The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, and 
Lord Palmerston's prophecy was fulfilled. 
In 1875 tne English Government purchased 
the Khedive's shares (,£4,000,000) in the 
Suez Canal, and this was followed by the 
bombardment of Alexandria by the British 
fleet in 1885. The chief aim of the English 
occupation of Egypt was " to possess the inns 
on the north road." 2 

1 The explanation of Lord Palmerston's opposition 
to M. de Lessep's scheme, which was given confidentally 
by him to one of his subordinates in the Foreign Office. 

2 " We do not want Egypt, or wish it for ourselves 
any more than any rational man, with an estate in the 
north of England and a residence in the south, would 
have wished to possess the inns on the north road. All 
he could want would have been that the inns should be 
well kept, always accessible, and furnishing him, when he 
came, with mutton chops and post horses. We want to 
trade with Egypt, and to travel through Egypt " (Lord 
Palmerston's Letter to Lord Cowley, November 25, 1859). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 217 

It will be impossible to avoid the conflict 
of English and French interests as long as 
there is only one route through the Suez 
Canal to India, and an Anglo-French alliance 
on the subject seems to be far distant, par- 
ticularly as England has three-fourths of the 
traffic through the canal. 

It is also a matter of great importance that 
England should keep Egypt orderly and 
peaceful. Lord Salisbury, in an excellent 
speech on Lord Mayor's Day, 1889, said : 

"We (English) have undertaken to sustain 
Egypt until she is competent to sustain 
herself against every enemy, foreign or 
domestic. We cannot see that that time 
has yet arrived. It may arrive quicker or 
later. Other Powers may help us by con- 
curring in measures which will improve the 
position and increase the prosperity of 
Egypt, or they may defer that day by taking 
an opposite course. But whether the day 
comes sooner or later, our policy remains 
unaltered, and we will pursue our task to the 
end." 

We can easily get at the pith of Lord 



2i3 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Salisbury's speech. If France again became 
a co-partner of England in establishing peace 
and order in Egypt, then England would be 
quite willing to restore the dual control 
with regard to Egypt, and Lord Salisbury in 
1878 had declared that England did not 
desire to annex Egypt. 

The dual control of France and England 
with regard to Egypt might possibly settle 
affairs there temporarily, or neutralize that 
country on the same lines as Belgium ; but 
still this is not a sufficient o-uarantee against 
an Anglo-French dispute on the Egyptian 
question. 

The French Government of the present 
day is not noted for stability, always chang- 
ing, never agreeing, and ready for foreign 
quarrels, and although now they are support- 
ing the English Government in Egypt, it is 
not safe to depend upon them, for the feeling 
of rivalry is sure to arise, and great caution 
has to be exercised in order to prevent 
complications arising. No matter what 
happens, England must have free communi- 
cation with India, and as long as there is 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 219 

only one road, ruptures will be inevitable, 
and there can be no firm alliance as in the 
case of the Crimean War. 

It seems to me to be a favourable time to 
suggest to Turkey the construction of a rail- 
way from Constantinople or some other port 
on the Mediterranean to Bussorah on the 
Persian Gulf : w T hy should not England 
undertake the construction herself? This 
route would certainly possess four great 
advantages : 

(1) It would be a shorter route to India. 

(2) It would be a valuable means of quick 
transportation of either Turkish or English 
troops for the defence oi Asia Minor. 

(3) It would avoid a clashing of English 
and French interests in Egypt to a certain 
extent, and a dual control would thereby be 
strengthened, and would produce two more 
results, viz : — 

(a) A firmer alliance between England 
and France. 

(6) England would be able to reduce her 
troops in Egypt, and devote them to the 
defence of Asia Minor, and by this means be 



220 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

more able to withstand Russian attacks in 
that quarter and in Persia. 

(4) Lastly, Turkey would be strengthened 
financially owing to the prosperity of her 
commerce, and productions in Asia Minor, 
which is the usual effect of such a communi- 
cation. 

By this means England can fulfil her 
public duty to Turkey, which she had under- 
taken to do by the Anglo-Turkish Conven- 
tion, and can maintain her national honour 
pledged when Lord Beaconsfield and Count 
Andrassy discussed the defence of Turkey 
from Russian invasion in Asia and Europe. 

It is difficult to see why this railway 
scheme was not brought forward at the 
Anglo-Turkish Convention, because it 
appears to me to be of primary importance 
for the defence of both Asia Minor and 
India ; and also how it escaped the mind of 
so clever a statesman as Lord Beaconsfield. 

It has, however, been informally discussed 
both at political meetings and by pamphlet 
only recently : the financial difficulties seemed 
quite surmountable, but political opinions 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 221 

are decidedly at variance on the subject. 
But it is my opinion that England would be 
perfectly right in compelling Turkey to carry 
out this scheme, and if she was not able to 
execute it, then England could perform it 
herself, and she would be only fulfilling one 
of the duties which she has undertaken to 
perform with the Sultan at the Anglo- 
Turkish Convention. 

The following articles strangely enough 
appeared in one of the English daily 
papers l : — 

" The tradition, adhered to even by Lord 
Beaconsfield, of remaining allied with Turkey 
at all hazards, is no longer advocated even 
by Conservative occupants of the Foreign 
Office. Since the occupation by England of 
Cyprus, and still more of Egypt, Constanti- 
nople has lost much of its importance to 
England. The Russian fleet in the Black 
Sea would, in the event of war, pass through 
the Dardanelles, with or without the Sultan's 
consent, and advance into the Mediterranean. 
The rule of the Sultan at Constantinople, 
1 Pall Mall, September 15, 1886. 



222 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

therefore, no longer affords a guarantee 
against a Russian attack of the English 
possessions in the Mediterranean. Russia 
already possesses a road to India via Merv, 
and the possession of Constantinople could 
afford her no resistance in this direction." 

" England, on the other hand, in the event 
of Russia's impeding the conveyance of 
English troops through the Suez Canal, has 
at her disposal another way to India, one 
which leads exclusively through British 
dominions — the new Canadian railway. One 
no longer thinks of defending India at 
Constantinople, but in Afghanistan and on 
the Anglo-Afghan frontier. England has as 
much interest as the other Powers in pre- 
venting Russia from advancing towards 
Constantinople, but this is no longer held to 
be a vital interest that would have to be 
protected even by force of arms." 

This is certainly a serious mistake in 
policy if backed up by the English Govern- 
ment, even more so than that of the Duke of 
Wellington, 182 7-1 830. 

If Constantinople were once occupied by 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 223 

Russia, it is certain that Turkey would be a 
thing of the past, the Russian fleet on the 
Black Sea would at once sail into the 
Mediterranean and attack the English 
supremacy there. The Russian occupation 
would enable them to withdraw quite 200,000 
troops from the Black Sea coasts which 
could be used for an attack on the Balkans, 
Armenia, or Central Asia ; Cyprus would be 
lost to England, and Asia Minor to Turkey ; 
Russia would have a largely increased power 
in the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf 
would be no longer open to English ships. 

If the Franco- Russian alliance of to-day 
remained firm, and war was to be declared, 
then England wx>uld only have two long 
routes to India: (a) round the Cape of Good 
Hope, (b) the new Canadian railway. Lord 
Charles Beresford said, " With the Cape 
well fortified and held by a military force, 
England might laugh at the world." But 
the Cape would be unsafe, owing to France 
having now firm hold of the Indian Ocean 
" Malta," viz., Madagascar. 

Notwithstanding that the new Canadian 



224 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

route passes exclusively through British 
dominions, yet it cannot be called a direct 
route, for it is certainly a seven days longer 
journey than the Gibraltar route to Cal- 
cutta. Russia, on the other hand, could 
send an immense number of troops in seven 
or ten days from Moscow to the Afghan 
frontiers, and in about another extra day 
from St. Petersburg, or the Caucasian 
Peninsula. 

This would be all in favour of Russia 
gaining the .first military move — a matter of 
extreme importance in the present advanced 
stage of military tactics. 

This question may also be viewed from 
two other points : — 

First, Cobden l and Bright were once 
under the idea that if Russia occupied 
Constantinople, she would change into a 

1 " If Russia obtained Constantinople, she must cease 
to be barbarous before she could become formidable ; 
and if she made a great navy, it must be by doing as the 
Venetians, the Dutch, the English, and the Americans did, 
by the accumulation of wealth, the exercise of industry, 
the superior skill and intelligence of her artizans" 
(Cobden's Manchester Speech). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 225 

peaceful and civilized nation, and that Eng- 
land would be materially benefited com- 
mercially. This was merely an imaginary 
dream, for there is no doubt in my mind 
that a Russian occupation of the Turkish 
capital is a preliminary to shutting out Eng- 
lish trade from the Black Sea by heavy 
protective duties. Second, England has 
engaged herself, together with the other 
European Powers, to respect the integrity 
and independence of the Ottoman Empire 
by the Treaties of Paris, London, and Berlin, 
and still more emphatically by the Anglo- 
Turkish Convention. If, therefore, she 
followed the policy of leaving Constantinople 
to its fate, and simply defended her interests 
on the Afghan frontiers, she would at once 
be branded with disgrace, and stigmatized as 
a breaker of the' 1856, 1871, and 1878 
Treaties, and a backslider from the Anglo- 
Turkish Convention. 

At the present time, however, an indirect 
change of policy may be observed. Early 
in March, 1889, the First Lord of the 
Admiralty (Lord George Hamilton) intro- 

15 



226 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

duced and passed the Naval Defences Bill, 
authorizing an expenditure of ^21,500,000 
on the Navy by constructing eight first 
and two second-class battle-ships, nine first- 
class and thirty-three smaller cruisers, and 
eighteen torpedo gun-boats. This surely 
implies that England is determined to pre- 
vent Russian encroachments both at Con- 
stantinople and in the Mediterranean. 

Reviewing the above, the following things 
seem plainly revealed, viz., that Russia has 
in the majority of cases assumed an offensive 
policy while England has maintained a de- 
fensive one with regard to Eastern Europe. 

Pitt started a splendid scheme of resist- 
ance against Russia ; Canning worked upon 
it, and developed the European Concert 
scheme with regard to Turkey; Palmerston 
improved, expanded, and eventually com- 
pleted a perfectly harmonious unison; while 
Beaconsfield composed and worked varia- 
tions upon the original strain of the Concert. 
Surely the example of such noble and great 
statesmen is worthy of veneration both in 
the present and the future. 



IX. 



CENTRAL ASIA. 

Rise of British power in India — Rivalry of France — Aims 
of Napoleon — Russian influence in Central Asia — Its 
great extension after the Crimean War — And after 
the Berlin Congress — Possible points of attack on 
India — Constantinople the real aim of Russia's Asiatic 
policy — Recent Russian annexations and railways in 
Central Asia — Reaction of Asiatic nvdventents on the 
Balkan question — Dangerous condition of Austria — 
Possible future Russian advances in Asia — England's 
true policy the co?istruction of a speedy route to India 
by railway from the M edit err ajiean to the Persian 
Gulf— Alliance of England, France, Turkey, Austria, 
and Italy would effectively thzvart Russian schemes. 

I do not mean to detain my readers for 
any length of time upon this tedious subject 
which has been so often discussed. I shall 
sketch the policy of England and Russia in 
the region in question. However, it must 
not be forgotten that the subject is important, 
as it leads up to the great Pacific Question 
which will occupy European attention for 
many years to come. 



228 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

The foundation of the British Empire in 
India dates from the Battle of Plassey, June 
2 3> 1 757» a n d Clive's Second Governorship 
of the East India Company established the 
India administration on a firm basis. 

Warren Hastings improved and properly 
organized the foundation laid by Clive, and 
Lord Cornwallis consolidated Bengal and 
the other chief states, and rendered them 
fairly secure. 

Lord Wellesley was the first who felt fully 
convinced that England should be the per- 
manent predominant Power in India, and he 
carried out this policy by extensive sub- 
sidiary alliances with native princes by which 
the states were placed under British pro- 
tection. 

It is said that this policy was suggested 
by " the great events that were taking place 
in Europe, where French ideas and French 
arms under the genius of Bonaparte were 
reducing kingdoms and states to provinces 
of an Empire." I 

Lord Minto first opened relations with the 
1 Carlo's " British India," p. 59. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 229 

Punjaub, Afghanistan, and Persia. He was 
succeeded by Lord Moira, who saw that the 
British frontiers in India could never be 
secured till the natural barrier of the Hima- 
layas and the sea were reached ; while Lord 
Dalhousie proved a faithful follower and im- 
prover of this policy, and at last made India 
a completely organized state. 

England ' s Opponents in British India. 

The Portuguese ascendency in India was 
of short duration. It was followed by a 
keen rivalry between the English and 
French, the former eventually obtaining the 
precedence. This was owing to the naval 
superiority of the English in Indian seas, 
under the wise guidance of Chatham, sup- 
ported by the skilful military and civil ad- 
ministration of Clive and Hastings. 

In 1 797-1 798 Napoleon threatened to in- 
vade India from the north; first he threatened 
an attack from the Deccan, then in the 
latter part of the year he concluded an 
alliance with several Asiatic princes pre- 



2jo JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

paratory to another attack from the same 
quarter. 

The Marquis Wellesley was at once sent 
out and landed in Madras, April 26, 1798. 
Affairs seemed critical. Napoleon was pre- 
paring for a great invasion of Egypt prior 
to a descent on India. Tippoo Sultan, in 
India > was raising troops, disciplined under 
French management, and strengthened by 
French help, commanded by Raymond. 
Rao Sindia (the Mahratta ruler), the Pesha- 
war (Governor of Poonah), the Ameer of 
Afghanistan, and Holkar were all hostile 
to English interests in India, and threatened 
to plunge everything into war with the 
assistance of the French. 

Wellesley plainly saw that a defensive 
policy was the best. Accordingly he made 
an alliance with some.of the Mahratta powers 
to frustrate a French invasion from the 
north. He also strongly urged the English 
Home Government to take possession of 
the Cape of Good Hope, and the Isles of 
France and Bourbon, in order to cut off 
the sea route to India from France. This 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 231 

advice was followed by the English Govern- 
ment, who retained Malta, Mauritius, the Cape 
of Good Hope, and the Ionian Islands by the 
provisions of the Congress of Vienna, 18 15. 

He then began to crush Tippoo Sultan and 
his allies, and by the brilliant victories of 
Assaye and Argaum brought them to his feet. 
Having conquered these Native states he 
now began to take measures to consolidate 
them. He allowed the princes to retain 
their titles, but subjected them to the English 
Power, which secured them from foreign 
aggression, and also let them have full liberty 
with regard to internal administration. 

On his recall in 1805 a policy of non- 
interference was carried on by his successor, 
Lord Cornvvallis. 

During the Napoleonic European War, 
Lord Minto was Governor-General. Under 
his able administration the French Isles of 
Bourbon and Mauritius and the Dutch East 
Indian Islands were captured. He also sent 
political missions into Persia, Sindia, and 
Poonah to crush down the French influence 
and intrigue there. 



232 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Napoleon fell in 1815, and the most for- 
midable opponent to British Indian interests 
disappeared. 

Yet the Marquis of Hastings and his suc- 
cessors still carried out the same policy of 
annexation as had been in existence during 
the alarms of Napoleon, and the Indian 
frontiers have ever since been keenly watched 
and guarded from foreign attack. The second 
Mahratta War (181 7-1 8 19) and the first 
Burmese War (1 824-1 826) are instances of 
British watchfulness over the frontiers. 

As was to be expected, Russia appeared 
on the scene in the place of France, and 
the drama of the Anglo- Russian struggle in 
Afghanistan was enacted in 1837. 

For some time previously Russia had been 
gradually advancing into Central Asia. This 
movement started with Peter the Great, 
while Alexander I. arranged with Napoleon 
by the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) to annex what- 
ever he pleased in Central Asia. Hence the 
Russian boast of Nicholas that " Russia has 
no boundary in Central Asia." For some 
time, however, Turkish affairs occupied the 



The Expansion of Russia in Asia. 




Serf* 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 235 

Russian minds, and Asia was left untouched, 
while for twenty or thirty years after the fall 
of Napoleon, all the great countries were 
endeavouring to restore the balance of power 
in Europe. Then in 1830 Russia began to 
show her hand, and seized Jaxartes, and in 
1837 the siege of Herat by the Persians (no 
doubt incited by the Russians), which is 
sometimes called the north-western gate of 
India, and the failure of negotiations with 
Dost Mohammed, who was backed by Russian 
influence, urged the English to take strong 
measures in order to protect India from 
Russian invasion, especially through the 
two Afghan Passes, the Bolon and Khy- 
ber. 

The first English move was the sending 
of an expedition to Cabul, and its occupation 
in 1839. Its intention was to place a ruler 
over Afghanistan who should be under Eng- 
lish influence. This was considered defensive 
policy. 

In 1847 Lord Palmerston wrote to Lord 
John Russell the following : — 

-" The roads through Persia are good, and 



236 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

the Caspian gives additional facilities. From 
Astrabad through Afghanistan are very 
practicable military roads. A Russian force 
in occupation of Afghanistan might convert 
Afghanistan into the advanced post of Russia." 

The annexation of Sind (1843), Punjaub 
(1849), Oudh (1856), and the second Bur- 
mese War (1852), are all policies on the same 
lines. 

Just at this period Russia was warmly 
engaged with Turkish affairs, and in 1 853— 
1856 was employed in the Crimean War 
against England, France, and Turkey. She 
was beaten, and by the Treaty of Paris was 
driven back from the Danube, and forbidden 
to put a Russian fleet of any description in 
the Black Sea, and the fortifications of Sebas- 
topol were dismantled. Thus a Russian 
advance on the Balkans and Armenia seemed 
then almost hopeless. Therefore she turned 
her attention to Central Asia, and vigorously 
carried out her plans for several years. 

In 1864 the Russian forces captured 
Tchenken, in Turkestan, and she had ad- 
vanced as far as the river Syr Daria. In 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 



237 



1865 s h e declared war with Bokhara, and 
captured Taskend, which was followed by the 
surrender of Khojind (1866). 

In 1 86 7 the province of Syr Adria was 
annexed, and in the same year Nicholas in- 
stalled a Russian Government in Turkestan. 
In 1868 Samarcand was subjugated, and the 
Ameer of Bokhara was practically made a 
vassal of the Czar. In 1869 Krasnovodok, 
on the east coast of the Caspian, next fell a 
prey to Russian greed, and a fort was built 
there, and at present forms one of the Russian 
military outposts. 

During and after the Franco-German War 
she was busily engaged in Central Asia, and 
still increased and extended her boundaries, 
until at length the Oxus was reached, and 
the Clarendon boundary in 1872 for a time 
stopped her roving footsteps. In 1873, how- 
ever, the whole territory of the Khan of 
Khiva was drawn in, and the river Atrak 
was now the boundary with Persia. Zeraf- 
shan next fell before her, and now the Tian 
Shan mountains and the eastern part of 
Semipolatinsk formed the eastern boundary 



238 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

with China. Lastly, 1876 saw the annexa- 
tion of Ferghana. 

Let us now direct our attention to the 
English frontiers and territory, which she 
was trying to consolidate more firmly. 

The Indian Mutiny of 1857 had led to the 
transferring of the Government of India from 
the East India Company to the Crown, and 
the reins of government from a Governor- 
General to a Viceroy (1858). The tour of 
the Prince of Wales through India, 1875— 
1876, had done a good deal of good in creat- 
ing a friendly feeling with the natives, and 
he had met with a brilliant reception. This 
was the preliminary to Queen Victoria being 
proclaimed Empress of India in 1877. 

The Russo-Turkish War (1878), the San 
Stefano Treaty, and the Congress of Berlin, 
produced a new phase in the Afghan ques- 
tion. The opposition of Austria to Russia 
at the Balkans, the defence of England in 
Asia Minor, both by the provisions of the 
Berlin Treaty, and the Anglo-Turkish Con- 
vention had frustrated the schemes of 
Russia in Europe ; she therefore turned her 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 239 

undivided energies to her advance in Central 
Asia, with the object of dividing the atten- 
tion and forces of the English between Asia 
Minor and the Afghan frontiers. 

In 1880 the final conquest of the Turco- 
mans along the northern frontier of Persia 
and the east coast of the Caspian facilitated 
her designs, and Askhabad was occupied. 
The dispute of the Kulja frontier with China 
was a winning move also in the eastern 
direction, also a part of Semipolatinsk was 
added, and fresh boundaries were made in 
the south-west of Ferghana towards the 
Chinese Empire, which measure caused Eng- 
land to adopt a defensive policy by the third 
Burmese War (1885). 

In 1882 the Russo-Merv Convention was 
concluded, finally deciding the submission of 
the latter, while in 1884 " His Imperial 
Highness (of Russia) had determined to ac- 
cept the allegiance of the Merv-Turcomans, 
and to send an officer to administer the 
government of that region." r The annexa- 
tion of Merv gave Russia possession of the 

1 Sir E. Thornton's telegram from St. Petersburg. 



240 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

river Murghab, giving her an opportunity of 
having a waterway to Herat if needed. 

This action compelled England to appoint 
a Commission to define the North-West 
frontier of Afghanistan (1885). England at 
this time was worried also with Egyptian 
affairs. Russia, notwithstanding, advanced 
and occupied Sarakhs and various other 
posts on the North- West frontier, all being 
strategically important. This aroused the 
English Government, who at once asked for 
a vote of credit of ^11,000,000, and began 
to show such a determined front that Russia 
was compelled to make certain conces- 
sions. 

However, at the conclusion of the negotia- 
tions it was found that Russia had pushed 
herself a considerable distance towards Herat, 
and had reached Ak Robat, while the railway 
to Samarcand was nearly finished. Thus 
Russia certainly scored a winning point, and, 
if desirous, could attack the Anglo-Indian 
frontier by three ways : 

(1) By advancing towards Cabul from 
Bokhara across the Oxus. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 241 

(2) By marching towards Candahar vid 
Herat by the Meshed line. 

(3) By attacking the same place through 
the Attric Valley and Merv route. 

The unsettled condition of the boundary 
between the Oxus and the Heri Rud, and 
particularly the Upper Oxus, will undoubtedly 
prove a source of discord between Russia 
and England for many years to come. 

In spite of the strenuous efforts of Russia 
in advancing, and extending her power and 
boundaries in Central Asia, yet her great and 
absorbing thought was not revealed openly 
to the watchful eyes of European Powers, 
viz., to have full control of Constantinople, 
the key to the Black Sea, and by obtaining 
this to command the Mediterranean and be 
paramount in Western Europe. 

A favourite manoeuvre in military opera- 
tions is to try and divert an opponent's eyes 
from the true point of attack, and by so doing 
to weaken the opposition at that point. 

As we have casually mentioned before, the 
elder Pitt " conquered America in Germany," 
and afterwards when Charles III. of Spain 

16 



242 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

concluded a secret Treaty known as the 
(third) " Family compact " with France, in- 
tending really to make war upon England, 
Chatham " determined to attack without delay 
the Havannah and Philippine Islands." 

Aeain, as another illustration of the above 
statement, we saw that Napoleon's Egyptian 
expedition and his invasion of Russia were 
really underhand blows at England. 

But why did he not attack America or 
Ireland ? Surely if he had sailed directly 
from Brest, 1798, to either of the above 
places, instead of going to Egypt as he did, 
with the combined fleets of France, Spain, 
and Holland, he would have dealt a much 
deadlier blow at British power. 

Let us examine the policy of Russia which 
has caused me to make the above statement. 

Catherine II. had resolved to reach Con- 
stantinople through the Balkan Peninsula. 
Pitt withstood this resolution by supporting 
the Ottoman Empire, together with Austria, 
as conducive to the interests of both nations. 
Austria, therefore, became an enemy of 
Russia. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 243 

Alexander I., therefore, seeing the united 
interests of England, France, Austria, and 
Turkey allied against him, changed his front 
and determined to reach Constantinople 
along the Caucasian route. He plainly saw 
that by this manoeuvre he would compel 
England and France to defend the Caucasus. 

At the beginning of his career the Czar 
Nicholas followed the same plans as his 
predecessor, but carried them out much more 
firmly ; he increased his field of operations 
by invading Persia, 1 826-1 828, and occupied 
Armenia. 

By this measure, no doubt, he expected to 
attract either England or France, perhaps 
both of them, to the Caucasian Question, 
thereby weakening the power of their alliance 
in the Balkans. France certainly would feel 
considerable uneasiness for the Holy Places 
which had a special charm for her Catholic 
followers. England" would also have felt 
qualms, seeing that if Russia occupied Persia, 
and made it an outpost for attacking India 
through Afghanistan she would have con- 
siderable trouble in defending her posses- 



244 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

sion. However, this scheme did not prove 
so effective as Nicholas wished, for it did not 
divide the attention of England and France 
in the Balkans. 

Russia, therefore^ perceiving this, followed 
the Napoleonic scheme of a direct attack on 
India with the help of several Asiatic states. 
In 1830 she first appeared in Central Asia 
and soon subjugated Persia and induced the 
Shah to occupy Herat, 1837. Alarmed at 
this, the whole energy of England was 
directed towards Afghanistan, and special 
preparations, which lasted for a quarter of a 
century, were made to defend an attack from 
that quarter. The home affairs of England, 
together with these alarming schemes of 
Russia with regard to India, determined the 
Wellington Ministry to advocate non-inter- 
ference in Balkan affairs. 

Russia also removed French opposition 
from the Balkans to Syria by stirring up 
quarrels between the Greek and Latin 
Churches in Jerusalem. In addition to this, 
as I have shown, Nicholas separated Eng- 
land and France by his diplomatic tact. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 245 

Thus Turkey was left alone with Austria 
in the Balkans. Nicholas then, feeling con- 
fident of success, at once threatened Con- 
stantinople by taking the steps which led to 
the Crimean War. He, however, over- 
reached himself, and was beaten, as we have 
seen, by the allied armies of England, France, 
and Turkey. 

Immediately after the Crimean War 
Russia again stretched out her hands on 
Persia as she had done in 1837. Lord 
Palmerston, however, closed them by de- 
claring war with the same country. " We 
are beginning," wrote Lord Palmerston, "to 
repel the first openings of trenches against 
India by Russia, and whatever difficulties 
Ferokh may make about Afghanistan we 
may be sure that Russia is his prompt and 
secret backer." 1 

In 1857 the peace of Paris was concluded 
by which the Shah renounced all claim over 
Herat and Afghanistan. This was a clever 
political stroke against a Russian attack on 
India. 

1 Lord Palmerston's Letter to Lord Clarendon, Feb. 
17. i357- 



246 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

In 1849 Lord Palmerston wrote : — 

" Persia must, I (Lord Palmerston) fear, 
now be looked on as an advanced post for 
Russia whenever she chooses to make use of 
it. She will command it either by over- 
powering force or by bribing the state by 
prospect of acquisition in Afghanistan." 

However, ultimately the same policy was 
again resorted to by the Czar to worry Eng- 
land in Central Asia. Again the Russians 
advanced into Central Asia towards the 
Indian frontier and extended their borders 
both south and east with great celerity. 

But a fresh complication arose extremely 
favourable for Russian plots. The Franco- 
German War (1870) seemed to be an intro- 
duction to the accomplishment of her wishes. 
France was miserably defeated, while the 
hands of Germany were fully tied up with 
Alsace and Lorraine. Two formidable 
opponents to Russian arms were therefore 
placed hors de combat. England and Austria 
were thus the only powers left for the 
defence of Constantinople. Austria had 
previously been weakened by a war with 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 247 

Prussia. It therefore seemed that England 
was the only strong supporter of the Otto- 
man Empire, and Russia determined to 
conquer Turkey in Central Asia, so she 
conquered and annexed Central Asia as far 
as possible until her boundaries reached 
Afghanistan and the Chinese Empire in 
1874. Being naturally alarmed at these 
encroachments, England again was obliged 
to devote all her energies to the Indian and 
Afghan frontiers, and engaged in the Afghan 
War. 

Russia now saw that she was in a better 
position with regard to Turkey than she had 
been before the Crimean War, for although 
Turkey was still assisted by Austria, yet the 
latter had not fully recovered from the 
Prusso-Austrian War. Again France was in 
a convulsed state, while England was 
harassed with Afghan affairs. A general 
alliance of the Mediterranean Powers seemed 
therefore impossible. 

Russia, therefore, boldly declared war in 
1878, and marched to the gates of Constan- 
tinople, and eventually concluded the San 



248 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Stefano Treaty. This aroused both England 
and Austria, and, owing to their warlike 
attitude, the Berlin Congress was convened, 
and Russia again found her hands withheld 
from the Turkish metropolis, although she 
succeeded in definitely dividing the attention 
of England and Austria in the Balkans by 
turning English eyes towards Asia Minor. 
Her success was still greater in obtaining 
the outlet of the Danube and the arsenal of 
Batoum in the Black Sea. 

Glancing, then, at the situation generally, 
one can perceive that Russia saw that the 
English opposition in Asia Minor would 
prove formidable, but she did not think that 
the Austrian defence of the Balkans would 
turn out so dangerous to her hopes. Her 
reasons for thinking this w r ere plain. Eng- 
land at this crisis was a nation of the first 
magnitude, both in strength and wealth, and 
if only she (England) had fortified and 
occupied Cyprus as she ought to have done, 
she would have proved a valuable ally to 
Turkey, and would also have commanded the 
^Egean Sea. Russia saw that the most 



THE EA S TERN Q UES T10N. 249 

advantageous policy would be to distract 
England's attention both from Cyprus and 
Asia Minor. To accomplish this she for the 
third time started to conquer Turkey through 
Central Asia. 

In 1878 she concluded a secret agreement 
with Persia by which the territory down to 
Sarakhs from the Russian frontier was ceded 
to her. Her influence in Khorasan was 
increasing day by day, and especially so in 
Meshed, owing to the skill and tact of 
M. Vlassoff, the Russian Consul-General in 
that district. India was again threatened by 
her, and Herat approached. Her boundaries 
were extended into the Chinese dominions, 
and great uneasiness was caused in England 
concerning the boundary question of the 
Oxus. 

The most effective and important step, 
however, taken by Russia for the accomplish- 
ment of her schemes, was the construction of 
the Caspian-Samarcand Railway. It was 
started in 1881 with the primary object of 
facilitating the war operations of General 
Skobeloff for the reduction of the Tekkes. 



25 o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Lord Hartington called General Annenkoff, 
the promoter of the railway, " a foolish 
fellow." However, Samarcand was reached in 
1885, during the time that an Anglo-Russian 
war was threatening about the Murghab 
question. Thus a general military 1 com- 
munication of Russia with Asia was estab- 
lished. She had three ways of sending 
troops and materials in the direction of the 
eastern shores of the Caspian : — 

(1) From St. Petersburg to Saratoff on 

1 "Russia is divided into fifteen military districts, 
which comprise also Finland, Siberia, the Caucasus, the 
Trans-Caspian region, and Turkestan. The entire Russian 
effective force, including officers, artillery, engineers, train, 
&c, consists of — 

Regular army ... ... ... 1,766,278 

Cossack troops ... ... ... 145,325 

Irregular troops ... ... ... 6>33i 

Total 1,917,934 

By adding to these figures, the effective troops not 
levied in time of peace, say 100,000 men, we reach 
an effective of 2,000,000 for the war footing. The 
Russian militia, which may be called out in times of war, 
amounts to 3,000,000 men" Harpers Magazine, 
January, 1890), "The Russian Army" by a Russian 
General. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION, 251 

the Volga, via Moscow, by railway, from 
there to Astrakhan by steamboat on the 
river, and from the latter place to Krau- 
saovodsk or Uzan Ada. 

(2) From St. Petersburg to Voladis 
Caucase per railway, from thence to Tiflis by 
post road (an eighteen hours' journey), from 
Tiflis to Baku by railway, and from there to 
Uzan Ada. 

(3.) From Odessa or the Crimea to Poti 
on the eastern Black Sea coast by steam, from 
Poti to Baku, and from there to Uzan Ada. 

The water traffic across, the Caspian, from 
its differents ports is carried on by fifteen 
ships of the Caucasus and Mercury Company. 
They are in receipt of a large annual subsidy 
from the state for the conveyance of mails 
and troops, and also for the use of their boats 
for transport in case of war. One of these 
fifteen steamers sails from Baku to Uzan 
Ada twice a week. 1 

The Trans-Caucasian Railway starts from 
the latter place, running east and afterwards 
north-east to Merv. From there it proceeds 
1 The Times, 



252 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

in the same direction, crossing the Oxus, 
passing Bokhara, and eventually terminates at 
Samarcand — a distance altogether of about 
nine hundred miles. 

The work of laying the rails was done by 
two battalions of Russian soldiers (five 
hundred each) and also by five thousand 
native labourers, whose wage was threepence 
a day. Wages have since been increased to 
sixpence a day. From the amount expended 
in labour we can see that the railway 
expense did not prove inordinately dear, viz., 
30,000,000 roubles, including also the cost of 
the Siberian Railway, especially as the Russian 
estimate at first was 60,000,000 roubles. The 
average rate of laying the rails was exceed- 
ingly rapid, viz., four or five miles a day. 

There are now one hundred and four 
locomotives and one thousand two hundred 
wagons, fifteen new locomotives have lately 
been ordered, six new passenger wagons, and 
eighty cistern cars. A commission has 
recently reported in favour of a further grant 
to General Annenkoff of 8,000,000 roubles. 1 
1 The Times, 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 253 

This line has opened a wide field for 
trade with Central Asia. The traffic in 
1888 alone was about ,£3,000,000, and 
General Annenkoff announced that the net 
profit of the railway in 1888 amounted to 
about ^80,000, that 2,000,000 pods of cotton 
had been conveyed by it during the same 
year, and that in 1889 a total of 4,000,000 
pods was anticipated. 1 

Viewing from a political and strategical 
point of view this railway has been an 
even more important factor. The northern 
frontier of Persia by its means has been 
placed completely at the mercy of Russia, 
and by it she was enabled to consolidate her 
new Asiatic territories which she had annexed 
and conquered, Russian troops were able to 
be transported' to the Afghan frontier at a 
very short notice from all parts of Russia. 

Without doubt the construction of the 
Trans-Caspian Railway and its threatening 
results have proved of immense value 
for the success of Russia. By its means 
England was induced to turn her attention 
1 The Times. 



254 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

from Asia Minor to Indian affairs. This 
resulted in embroiling England with the 
second Afghan War, compelled her to appoint 
a boundary commission, and plunged her into 
the third Burmese War. All these catas- 
trophes compelled her to neglect her Anglo- 
Turkish Convention promises — a result aimed 
at by her Russian friends (?) 

Even in Persia English influence is at a 
discount, and proportionately Russian in- 
fluence is rising. The appointment of Sir 
H. D. Wolff, a clever diplomatist, to the 
Teheran Court, and the brilliant reception 
accorded to the Shah during his recent visit 
by the English, were too late to do any good. 
It may do good, and it may not. 

Let us now see what effect upon Austria 
the Russo-Asiatic policy had. 

Firstly, Austria had been left alone to cope 
with Russia in the Balkans, and she was 
practicably left to defend the Ottoman 
Empire. France and Germany were practic- 
ably disarmed, and were unable materially to 
assist Turkey against Russia. England, as 
we have seen before, was occupied elsewhere, 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 255 

and had practically deserted Asia Minor, 
although this might be altered if only she 
would station troops at Cyprus or somewhere 
near at hand. Austria did not wish for a 
naval alliance only, which she considered 
practically useless in event of war, but she 
wanted a complete alliance. An alliance 
between the two Powers failed at the Berlin 
Congress, and also in October, 1886. 

Thus Russia obtained her desires in 
dividing the two Powers in Europe and Asia, 
and prevented a general alliance by threaten- 
ing Central Asia. 

Certainly Austria had performed her 
Balkan duty well, although she was clearly 
overweighted, and the result was internal 
exhaustion, financial difficulties, social dis- 
content, the result of pecuniary troubles. 1 

1 "A disastrous bankruptcy was the result of the wars 
which marked the beginning of the century, and the 
crash of 1873 caused most serious loss both to state and 
individuals. The stock exchange of Vienna is one of 
those where speculation is not rife. The Budget of 1888 
for Austria gave ^41,335,000 as the amount of revenue, 
and £48,030,000 as that of expenditure, and the public 
debt as ^83,091,060. For Hungary, the revenue was 
in 1887 ,£28,937,630, and the expenditure £"29,547,853. 



256 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Of all the great European cities, the 
socialists are at the present moment strongest 
in Vienna. An able political writer of the 
present day has said: "The Dualism of the 
Monarchy (Austria- Hungary) is very nearly 
dead, and if Austria is to exist at all she 
must rapidly become tripartite, and ultimately 
resolve herself into a somewhat loose con- 
federation." 1 

These domestic difficulties have caused her 
to gradually lose her influence in the Balkans, 
and the abdication of King Milan of Servia 
has proved a still more serious blow to her 
power in that quarter. 

It seems to me impolitic for Russia to go 
to war with the five million Magyars. It 
would be better to influence Austria so as to 
increase her internal discords and foster them 
by skilful diplomacy if she wished to attain 
her objects. For instance, to demonstrate 
against the accession of Prince Ferdinand to 

The public debt for the whole of the Empire is twenty- 
seven millions of florins " Leger's " History of Austro- 
Hungary " (translated by Mrs. B. Hill), p. 633. 

1 " The Present Condition of European Politics," 
p. 203. 



THE EASTERN QUEST/ON. 257 

the Bulgarian throne, to oppose the Bulgarian 
loans, and give pecuniary help herself to 
immigrants from Montenegro to Servia. 

The consequence would be that Austria 
could not possibly remain peaceful when 
inhabited by bitter anti-Russian Magyars. 
She would have to make war preparations 
and spend money, and would thus increase 
her financial difficulties, and the result would 
be the breaking down of the Dual Monarchy, 
" the personal union of fifty-six states," a 
mixture of races, religions, and tongues. 

A strong and compact confederation can 
only be obtained by sound financial dealings. 
Austria once broken down by internal dis- 
cord, then Constantinople and the Balkans 
would be Russian possessions. 

If Russia is desirous of accomplishing her 
ends, her great aim must be to prevent any 
of the great Powers from making an alliance 
with Austria. Owing to the Franco-Russian 
alliance, Russia is quite powerful enough to 
hinder any effective alliance with Germany. 

With regard to an alliance with England, 
there is one strong barrier which, if kept up, 

17 



258 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC, 

will always prevent such a coalition, viz., the 
Trans-Caspian Railway. 

The following ideas would still further 
separate the two Powers : — 

(i) The extension of the railway from 
Samarcand to Kokan, because from Kokan 
Russia can threaten to push on her border 
to Eastern Turkestan, and move southward 
to Tibet, and from there will be able to 
threaten the territory of Cashmere, which 
are the boundaries at present unsettled. 

(2) An extension of railway from Samar- 
cand to Tashkend, which is contemplated, 
and when completed will connect Siberia 
from a military point of view. It can be 
also taken north-west, along the north- 
eastern shore of the Aral Sea, and may be 
connected with the parent line at Orenburg, 
and connected with Russia and Central Asia 
for military purposes. 

(3) To construct a line from Mertvi, or 
Dead Bay, on the Caspian, to the western 
shore of the Sea of Aral. This would prove 
another quick mode of transit, particularly 
from St. Petersburg and Moscow to Kilif, 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 259 

on the Oxus, and also to Samarcand. At 
present steamers ply on the Amu Daria 
from the Aral Sea southwards as far as 
Kilif on the northern boundary of Afghanis- 
tan. 

These steamers are 20 feet broad, 150 
feet long, and are of 500-horse power, travel- 
ling 16 miles an hour, and are capable of 
conveying 300 soldiers and 20 officers. 

(4) To throw off a branch line from 
Bokhara to Kilif, and from there to Balkh. 

(5) Two branch lines (a) from Merv to 
Herat, via Penjdeh ; (J?) from Merv to 
Sarakhs, via Chacha, and still further to 
Kuhsan, in the direction of Herat. 

(6) By entering the Persian dominion 
from the present northern boundary to 
occupy Meshed, proceeding thence to Kuhsan 
to meet the line from Sarakhs. 

In consequence of the approaching depar- 
ture for Persia of M. de Buelzoff, the newly- 
appointed minister at Teheran, most of the 
Russian newspapers warmly advocated the 
immediate construction of a line from the 
northern part of Persia. 



260 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

(7) An extension of railway from Meshed 
through Khorasan and Serstan southwards 
as far as Nasirabad, and eventually to get a 
port on the Persian Gulf or Indian Ocean. 

Once let Russia get the long-wished-for 
outlet in the southern seas, and then she 
will be still more able to strike another 
blow against English influence. There is 
not the least doubt that Persian affairs will 
occupy the attention of England for some 
years to come. 

All these extensions will, if carried out, 
mean a Russian invasion all along the 
Hindostan frontier, and thus would further 
indirectly her European aspiration. 

On the other hand, looking from an Eng- 
lish point of view, we can suggest a scheme 
of frustration by means of sound and politic 
administration. 

For instance, at present large railways 
start from Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, 
traversing Delhi and Lahore, terminating 
at Peshawar; from Lahore the line runs to 
Kurrachee, on the Arabian Sea, and a 
branch line goes north-west from Sakkar 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 261 

to Pishin, via Quetta. Thus we see the 
English defence of her Indian frontier is 
fairly well looked after, although a "for- 
ward" policy of railway construction in 
India may, and no doubt will, be advan- 
tageous to English defence and commerce. 

England is certainly heavily handicapped 
owing to the want of a short and safe com- 
munication with India. The Suez Canal is 
not safe enough, both the Canadian Railway 
and the Cape of Good Hope routes are long, 
therefore it is a matter of great moment 
that she should have a safe and quick route 
by which she might despatch troops and 
materials with celerity. 

The following route, if carried out, would 
prove of the very greatest advantage to 
England. First, the occupation of the 
Karrack Island in the Persian Gulf, which 
is in every respect suitable for a military 
station, having good water and being healthy. 
It is with truth often termed the key of the 
Persian Gulf. 

Secondly, a railway should be constructed 
from Scandarum, on the Mediterranean, to 



262 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

Bussorah, on the Persian Gulf, through the 
Euphrates Valley — a saving of from seven 
hundred to one thousand miles, and of 
nearly four days. 

If an Afghan war arose, troops could be 
landed at Kurrachee instead of Bombay, 
and time would be gained and the monsoon 
also avoided. Troops could be forwarded 
at very short notice from Malta to Pishin 
and Peshawar, with almost equal speed to 
that with which Russia can collect troops in 
Central Asia. 

If once opened, the trade of Central Asia, 
India, and China would find its way by this 
route, and open out Persian and Indian 
relations with Europe as much as the Suez 
Canal l did after its opening ; Persia would 

1 " A few years ago a swift voyage from England to 
Calcutta, via the Cape of Good Hope, was from a 
hundred and ten to a hundred and twenty days. Now 
steamers by way of the Canal make the same voyage in 
about thirty days. Here, then, is a diminution of 75 per 
cent, on the enormous stocks of goods continually re- 
quired to be held unused, involving continued risk of 
depreciation, loss of interest, cost of insurance, to meet 
the requirements of mere transit" (S. A. Wells' "Prac- 
tical Economics," p. 236). 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 263 

be considerably strengthened. It would 
also, together with the military occupation 
of Karrack and Cyprus (if done properly), 
give a guarantee to both India and Persia 
against Russian attacks. 

The distance from Scandarum to Bussorah 
is only seven hundred miles, and would be 
safe against attacks, being protected by the 
double rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, for 
most of its course. Its cost would be 
estimated at ^9,000,000, which might easily 
be raised in the London market. Also if 
the Mudinia Aksu line be extended to Scan- 
darum, via Kiniah or the Scutari-Ismid line 
to Aleppo, through Angora, Kaisariyeh, and 
Abbiston, other beneficial effects may be 
produced. In the latter case it amounts, 
and is practically similar, to an extension 
of the Eastern Railway to the Persian 
Gulf, which starts from Paris, and passes 
Vienna, Belgrade, Sophia, Adrianople, ter- 
minating at Constantinople. So a direct 
land route could be obtained from Bussorah 
to Calais or Rotterdam if a bridge was 
constructed over the Bosphorus. 



264 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 

As I have already shown in chapter VIII., 
the construction of the Euphrates Railway 
would avoid a Franco-English conflict of 
interests in Egypt to a certain extent, and 
a dual control would be established ; thus a 
strong and effective alliance would ensue, 
caused by mutual interests, and England 
would be able thereby to withdraw her 
troops from Egypt, and devote them to the 
defence of Asia Minor. Thus a firm alliance 
between England and Turkey would follow, 
and would prevent a Mahommedhan rebellion 
in India against England, the Sultan being 
looked upon as the Mahommedhan Pope. 

England will also be able to call Indian 
troops to her assistance in Asia Minor. It 
will follow that as a larger number of troops 
and a better communication is obtained in 
Asia Minor, Austria would be quite willing 
to ally herself with England, instead of 
refusing, as she had done twice before, the 
English power at sea being only of little 
use. England and Austria therefore can 
not only jointly support Turkey, but also 
England can " come to the assistance of 



THE EASTERN QUESTION. 265 

Austria in Europe, and Austria make common 
cause with England in the event of Turkey 
being attacked in Asia Minor." 

Having a French, Austrian, and Turkish 
alliance, England can send her home troops 
both to India and Asia Minor by the Eastern 
Railway in a very short space of time, and 
can strengthen both countries and also help 
in the Balkans if required, and a firm and 
lasting alliance would be made. 

Why cannot Italy join this alliance ? It 
is a matter of necessity and advantage, both 
geographically and strategically, to do so, 
and if an alliance in Southern Europe could 
thus be made, the safety of the Balkans, 
Asia Minor, Persia, and Afghanistan might 
be assured, even if Germany joined Russia, 
and the lofty hopes of Russia would be 
dashed to the ground. 



THE END. 



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